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THE 



MANAGER'S ASSISTANT 



BEING- A CONDENSED TREATISE ON 



THE COTTON MANUFACTURE, 



W ITH 



SUITABLE EXPLANATIONS, &c. 



TO WHICH ARE ADDED, 



VARIOUS CALCULATIONS, TABLES, COMPARISONS, &c. 



OF SERVICE TO THE 



MANUFACTURER AND GENERAL READER. 



By DANIEL W. SNELL. 



" And for this new and most prolific source of wealth, we are indebted to 
the extraordinary genius and talents of a few individuals." 

" Can we have a more exciting example, then, of what resolute mind may do 
in apparently the most hopeless circumstances 1" 



HARTFORD: 

PRESS OF CASE, TIFFANY & CO 
1850. 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year, 1850, 
BY DANIEL W. SNELL, 

in the Clerk's office of the District Court of Conn. 



% 



.^1^ 



h^ 



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/ 3 ^ 



T O 



DANIEL SNELL, 



THESE PAGES ARE MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED 



AS A FAINT EXPRESSION OF AFFECTIONATE REGARD, 



FROM THE AUTHOR, 



PREFACE. 



In the following pages, the author has aimed at practi- 
cal information rather than originality, and has therefore 
availed himself of the labors of others, whenever they 
would serve his purpose. Many points under consid- 
eration are treated in a different manner from what has 
been noticed elsewhere ; while others are condensed and 
practical in their arrangement. His object was to give 
a work better suited for circulation, than the volumes 
which have appeared on the subject. 

Many who do not feel interest enough in the subject, to 
buy and read so large a work, for instance, as the inimit- 
able Dr. Ure's, or Montgomery's admirable treatise, will 
read such a work as this. 

Due notice has been given of the various machines 
employed, their improvement, speed, &c., and such other 
features as were deemed practicable ; to which are added 
numerous tables, calculations, &c. 

Each step is explained and may be clearly understood 
by those who have but a limited knowledge of the art. 

Such a work has long been a desideratum with our 
managers and overseers ; and we trust they will not be 
slow to appreciate it. 



VI PREFACE. 

Most of it has been the labor of the author while 
engaged in his duties, and this is his excuse for its not 
being more worthy of patronage. Nevertheless, as a 
work, it may not be wholly impracticable, and is given to 
the public, with diffidence, for the want of a better. 

Plainfield, Conn., 1850. 



CONTENTS. 



NOTICES OF THE DIFFERENT MACHINES EMPLOYED. 



The Scutcher or Willow, 

The Lapping or Spreading- Machine 

The Carding Engine, 

The Drawing Frames, 

The Roving Frames, 

The Spinning Machines, 

The Spooling Machines, 

The Warping Machines, 

The Dressing Machines, 

The Looms, .... 

Common Speed of the Various Machines, 
Common Produce do. do. do. 

Water Wheels, . . . . , 

Steam Engine, ..... 
Central Forces, , . . . 

Measurement of Water, 
Calculations of Power, 
Calculations of Speed, Draughts, &c. 
Various Tables, Recipes, &c.. 
Miscellaneous Practical Questions, 
Problems worked by the Sliding Rule, 
Statistics of Manufacturing Districts, 



9 
14 
16 
25 
32 

41 
53 
54 
56 
59 

61 

63 

64 

71 

76 

78 

83 

86 

124 

139 

149 

174 



THE 



COTTON MANUFACTURE 



AND 



MANAGER'S ASSISTANT 



THE SCUTCHER OR WILLOW. 

The operation of this machine serves to open and 
prepare the cotton for the Lapping or Spreading 
machine. If we could receive the cotton direct from 
the field, it would be found that the use of this machine 
might be dispensed with. 

But the cotton, when gathered, being compressed 
very strong to cheapen its transportation, becomes 
matted close, and its fibres completely entangled, so 
as to resemble an uniform fleece of knots or tufts. 
Nothing could be more injurious, both to machines 
and the quality of the work, than to use the cotton in 
this state. 

The Willow is peculiarly adapted for the opening 
of these fibres, and cleaning the cotton from sand and 
other impurities. 

Previous to the stock passing through this machine, 
a suitable quantity is spread upon the floor near by 
2 



10 THE SCUTCHER OR WILLOW. 

forming an uniform proportion of the different quality, 
strength and length of staple. 

Different managers entertain various opinions how 
this quantity should be formed to make uniform yarn. 

The general way is to open quite a number of bags 
and spread them one by one over the whole surface 
of the lap or bing — each layer forming a part of the 
desired section. When a sufficient number of these 
layers are placed upon each other, the lad who tends 
the machine commences his task, by taking the layer 
on the top of the bing, and presenting it to the opera- 
tion of the Willow. When he has run through this 
layer within his reach, he takes the next and serves 
it the same, and so on for the rest. In many mills, 
the bing is formed in the same way as above, and a 
kind of instrument similar to a rake is used to pull 
down the fibres at the side. This opens, and in a de- 
gree mixes the different qualities. Great care should 
be taken, and much skill is required in mixing stock, 
so as to improve the short and weak in staple, and 
combine the whole successfully for making perfect 
work. 

Much injury, in many mills, is done the soft loose- 
stapled cotton, by too much scutching. Short, open 
cotton, requires but little operation until the lap is 
formed, and often the yarn and goods are improved 
by omitting this operation, particularly on New-Or- 
leans, Boweds and light Uplands. Long, curly cot- 
ton, and that full of seeds, gins, &c., require more 
opening ; but too much of the tearing process injures 
the filaments. 



THE SCUTCHER OR WILLOW. 11 

It is not so much the tearing or hatcheling of stock, 
as the loosening of the fibres, and the separation of 
gins and other impurities, that is practicable. It is 
obvious that different qualities of cotton require dif- 
ferent degrees of scutching. To pass loose, open 
cotton through the same process of scutching as close, 
knotty Upland, would materially injure the former ; 
and to pass Sea-Island, or New Orleans with short 
inferior Upland, would produce anything but a desir- 
able evenness of yarn. And yet this is too common 
a practice in very many of our mills. 

When but two kinds of cotton are to be mixed, 
(and most managers deem this number sufficient,) a 
very good way is to incorporate them by an appara- 
tus attached to the doubler, or lapping-machine, or by 
passing the two different laps through the same card. 
This latter way is practised in many mills, and it 
forms an uniform and beautiful sliver ; where two or 
more spreading machines are employed, it is found to 
be much cheaper, as a poorer quality of stock can be 
worked into weft yarn. 

The best of cottons, such as Sea-Island, New Or- 
leans and Egyptians, are generally opened by the 
labor of the fingers — women and children being em- 
ployed. A quantity is thinly spread upon a table 
fitted with rods, or strung by cords drawn across ; 
through which the sand, seeds, &c. are made to drop 
by striking upon it with suitable rods — the elasticity 
of which aids in opening the fibres. In this way most 
of the impurities are separated. When the cotton is 
removed, the gins, leaves, &c. which may have re- 



12 THE SCUTCHER OR WILLOW. 

I 

sisted the action of the rods, are carefully taken 
away. But a small portion of our mills work these 
qualities. Principally coarse and medium yarns are 
made, requiring a fair quality stock. 

Various machines have been presented for opening 
and preparing cotton. The most ancient of which we 
have any account is that of Normandy. It consists 
of a long round box made of slats fastened to the 
inner circle, so nailed as to leave interstices between 
the rods for the escape of all impurities. In some, 
these slats or rods run round the cylindrical box. An 
axis extends through this box, with cross-arms so se- 
cured as to form a line long in extent round the axle. 
One end of the box is higher than the other, forming 
an inclined plane. The cotton is thrown into the box 
at the top, and the axis, in its rotary motion by means 
of its arms, catches hold and carries it round the 
length of the machine, and gently drops it at its lower 
end. It is quite simple in its construction, and re- 
quires but little power to move it. This machine, 
however, has been superseded by those of more mod- 
em construction. 

Another machine, partaking of the nature of the 
above, has been introduced in some mills. It consists 
of a large cylinder set full of spikes passing between 
other spikes fixed on the front of the machine. The 
cotton is led by an apron to a pair of rolls, through 
which it passes to be scrutched or opened. The cyl- 
inder revolves rapidly, and the rolls having a firm 
steady hold upon the web, serves to open and clean 
the stock admirably. 



THE SCUTCHER OR WILLOW. 13 

" Mason's Whipper," is more or less used, but those 
of more modern construction seem to merit a greater 
preference. It occupies but little room, and is a pow- 
erful machine. 

There is another powerful machine in use, called 
the " Conical Willow," invented by Mr. LiUie, of 
Manchester, Eng., a gentleman noted for mechanical 
ingenuity. It is more complex than either of the 
above mentioned machines, yet it possesses a remark- 
able power. It consists of the revolution of a cone 
inside of a concentrix box filled with spikes as in the 
common willow. 

It presents the novel feature of the cotton being 
drawn in at the smaller, and whirled along to the 
larger end of the cone, where it drops upon a moving 
strap, which lets it fall into a binn prepared to receive 
it. It occupies but little more room than the common 
square-framed willow. The motions of this truly 
elegant automatic machine, are a rich treat to a 
looker-on. One in viewing them, cannot resist the 
impulse within him to do homage to the spirit of im- 
provement which has effected a result truly so won- 
derful in comparison with that of the primitive willow 
of Normandy, patented in 1801. 

The " Bacon Willow," is an excellent machine, 
and a decided improvement in this branch. It is the 
most practicable in use for opening and preparing 
cotton. 



14 LAPPING OR SPREADING MACHINE. 



LAPPING OR SPREADING MACHINE. 

It is a fact well known by our competitors, if not 
acknowledged by us, that the opening and mixing of 
cotton is not so faithfully performed in this country 
as our interest requires. 

That spirit, which is our characteristic, of driving 
what we undertake, too extensively prevails in the 
preparing of stock previous to its being spun into 
yarn. 

The chief machine now in use for forming a lap, is 
that invented by Mr. Snodgrass, of Johnston, in Ren- 
frewshire ; this has been improved by Mr. Cooper, of 
the same place. 

In this, as in all improvements, the mechanics of 
New England are formidable rivals of the mother 
land. There are no machines of this, or indeed of 
any kind, which are more perfectly adapted to their 
office than those turned out by the Messrs. Whitins, 
of Mass. 

The movements of this machine are full of variety, 
and show most conclusively the triumph of genius. 
The cotton is regularly weighed and evenly spread 
upon the apron which carries it forward to the rolls ; 
of these there are two sets. As the stock passes 
through these, it is struck by a beater of two or more 
blades, which revolves with a rapid speed ; this opens 
the fibres, and winnows the gins, seeds, &c. from the 
cotton. These impurities are thrown back through 
an opening of the box by the action of the beater. 



LAPPING OR SPREADING MACHINE. 15 

Directly in front is a large wire cylinder, which re- 
ceives and carries forward the fleece to another set 
of rolls, through which it passes, when another beater 
strikes it ; this opens and winnows still more the cot- 
ton. Three and often four of these beaters are used. 
It is an excellent practice to double the lap at this pro- 
cess. It equalizes the fleece and is much better pre- 
pared for the Carding Engine. 

There is a limited draught between the feeding 
rolls, for the purpose of stretching or drawing the 
stock in its operation. Too much of this operation, 
however, is injurious at this stage, as the fibres are 
not uniformly straight. 

After escaping the rolls and beaters, the web is run 
through two pairs of calender rolls, to smooth and 
compress it. As it leaves these rolls, it is wound on 
a wooden lap-roll, forming a compact and beautiful 
lap. 

The beaters require to be adjusted with precision. 
In using long-stapled stock, the arms are set a greater 
distance from the rolls, to prevent the fibres from being 
injured or broken. This point should be particularly 
adjusted. The most devoted attention is required by 
the tender, as the beaters run at a high speed, acquir- 
ing great friction, especially when a heavy lap is 
formed. The sand or dust of coarse cottons tend to 
clog the bearings, by inspissating the oil. The beater 
boxes are generally made of fine composition. 

This machine, though somewhat complicated, re- 
quires but one hand to tend it. It occupies a space 



16 CARDING ENGINE. 

of some twenty feet in length, and from three to five 
in breadth. 

Previous to the introduction of this machine, much 
poor work was made, arising from an imperfect 
spreading of the cotton. 

Cleanhness of its parts, and expertness of the tender 
are very essential points to be regarded at this pro- 
cess. In viewing its operations, one cannot but mark 
the contrast it presents when compared with the old 
way of spreading the locks upon the apron of the 
breaker carding engine. 



CARDING ENGINE. 

This machine opens and equalizes the fibres still 
farther, and removes in a degree whatever gins, &c. 
may have resisted the action of the Willow and Lap- 
ping machine. The theory or principle of carding, is 
the alternate action of the surface of sheets set full of 
elastic wire teeth. These sheets are uniform in their 
thickness and in their length of teeth. 

The lap is led through a pair of fluted rolls, (some- 
times they are covered with wiry teeth,) when the 
small cyhnder called the licker-in, opens and delivers 
it to the main cylinder. Resting on the top of this 
cylinder are smaller ones, serving to clean and 
straighten the filaments called by different names, 
such as cleaners, strippers and urchins. The vacant 



CARDING ENGINE. 17 

space on the top is filled up by flats or slats, upon which 
are fastened sheets, which aid in keeping what impuri- 
ties may have passed these cleaners from being carried 
over to the doffer. In some cards nothing but these 
flats are used to resist the gins, &c., and aid in equal- 
izing the fibres. 

The doffer revolves with a slow motion, taking from 
the main drum the finest of the fleece, and the comb 
in front strikes and causes it to wind on the lap-drum 
or pass through a pair of calender rolls, into a can 
or guide-box of the railway. This is one of the most 
beautiful operations in the process of manufacturing, 
and is the contrivance so unjustly claimed for Har- 
greaves, in the suit against the ingenious and perse- 
vering Arkwright. The feeding rolls are secured at 
each end by weighted levers. Motion to them is 
communicated by a range of wheels from the main 
drum axle, or by a rod from the doffer shaft. The 
top-slats rest upon the arch or frame of the engine, 
near in contact with the main drum. The distance 
berween the tops and cylinder is regulated by screws 
in each end of the frame work. In ordinary carding, 
those nearest the front rolls are about three-sixteenths 
of an inch from the main drum sheets, and the rest 
decrease from this to one-sixteenth of an inch, or 
thereabouts. 

In many cards two laps are led through the rolls. 
This is an excellent way of mixing the qualities of 
stock, and perfecting the card-sliver. 

The railway system, (which is a great improve- 
ment) is generally in use. This consists of a drawing 



18 CARDING ENGINE. 

head, fed by the slivers dh'ect from the card. An 
endless band, running in a trough, for the reception of 
the slivers, brings forward the strand to the rolls, 
where it undergoes more or less extension, as may be 
practicable. Some managers deem a limited draught, 
others a considerable, the best way. At this process, 
the strand can be drawn, in our opinion, with advan- 
tage, the latter way. 

Where a railway is used, an independent motion 
drives the dofFer, and on many cards the feeding rolls. 

Between the breaker and finisher cards a machine 
is used in some mills, denominated a doubler, for 
forming the lap for the latter engine. The slivers 
from the breakers are run through a set of calender 
rolls driven by wheel work, which serve to compress 
and wind the lap. The lap-roll is weighted at each 
end by weights suspended on the cross-bearing of the 
loops, which rest on the end of the axis of the roll. 
When the lap is formed of sufficient size, a lever pro- 
jecting from the cross-bearing is raised, when a hook 
is made to catch hold and retain it until the lap is bro- 
ken off and a new one is replaced. Suitable guides 
are placed in front of the large rolls for separating and 
directing the slivers passing through them. 

Another machine for the same purpose has been 
presented, which performs its office admirably. It is 
of a harrow-like appearance, similar wheel work being 
employed at the wider end as in the above machine. 
The ends to be formed into a lap, are drawn by the 
motion of the rolls into one side of the frame. In this 
machine the slivers commence entering the rolls at 



CARDING ENGINE. 19 

the narrow end. Rolls of the required length com- 
press these slivers as they pass to the other extrem- 
ity. This process equalizes in a great degree the lap 
at this stage. It has the advantage of doubling, and 
is a much better way to join the filaments. 

In some of these machines, a stop-motion forms a 
novel feature in its operation. When one of the ends 
are broken, or run out, a guide-lever falls which ope- 
rates upon a catch or spring so as to shift the belt on 
the loose-pulley, or along on the axis upon which it 
freely revolves. It is obvious that this is preferable 
to the first mentioned machine. The lap formed in 
this way is passed through another set of cards, going 
through the same operation as the breakers. The 
sliver or end formed by the different finishers, is drawn 
down more than that of the breakers. 

Various drawing-heads are in use ; some delivering 
the end into two or three slivers, which are com- 
pressed by calender rollers and delivered into cans 
ready for the drawing-frame. Motion is conveyed 
to the rollers by an endless band passing round two 
cones, their ends being inverted. It is not uncom- 
mon in some mills to regulate the size of yarn by shift- 
ing this band alternately as may be required. Another 
advantage over the old way of carding is here gained ; 
when the cylinders require to be stripped or cleaned, 
all that is necessary to be done is to shift the belt, and 
stop one card of the system and clean it, put it in ope- 
ration, and so on for the rest. This, it will be seen, 
ensures steady, uniform work, and prevents the many 



20 CARDING ENGINE. 

stoppages attendant in the operation of cards mounted 
with the old fashioned lap-drum. 

In many mills, instead of a drawing-head and a sin- 
gle trough, there are two, three, and sometimes four 
of these troughs which convey their proportion of the 
sliver to the first head of the drawing frame. I have 
seen this working well on a system of twelve cards ; 
the drawing frame being placed so as to receive these 
slivers about midway of the range. No improvement 
has ever been introduced into the preparation depart- 
ment, which has proved more beneficial, or productive 
of more return than this railway system. It takes 
less power to drive it, makes more and cleaner work, 
does it quicker and more perfect, and with less expense 
than by the old way. 

Where eight to ten children were employed in tend- 
ing the old fashioned lap-drum, there is but one small 
boy required in using this admirable improvement. 

Single carding, or cards where the cotton passes 
through but one operation, is much in use in many 
mills, particularly on coarse work. 

These engines, when properly managed, furnish 
good carding, but most of carders seem to agree that 
the breaker and finisher are better adapted for furnish- 
ing an uniform sliver. Various patterns of mounting 
are in use both on the breaker and single carding 
engines. The common breaker card generally has 
nothing but flats, or flats and a licker-in : a second 
way is a licker-in, flats and cleaners, while in some 
no slats are used ; the surface being literally covered 
with urchins of two or more sizes. 



CARDING ENGINE. 21 

Many experiments, but less real improvements, have 
been made from time to time upon this machine. 

A kind of fancy, similar to that used in woolen, is 
often used in cotton cards, for the purpose of cleaning 
the main cylinder. By the use of this, much labor is 
saved, as but once or twice cleaning of the main drum 
is necessary in a period of twelve hours. 

In many carding engines, it is not uncommon to 
have two doffers acting in concert upon one drum. 
These do quite well on large heavy machines. 

Frequently the main drum is made of sheet or cast 
iron, coated with a composition of chalk, glue, &c. 
Upon the former are fastened cast iron plates, fitted 
to its circumference, with strips of wood between, for 
confining the sheets or fillets. A better way, how- 
ever, is employed in the latter; the cylinder is turned 
perfectly true, and suitable holes are drilled therein 
and plugged with hard wood for receiving the nails of 
the sheets. 

This kind of cylinders are objected to by some, on 
account of their great weight. They are a perfect 
cure for the shrinking and swelling of drums, so much 
the pest in many mills. 

In some cards, a blade is made to rest near in con- 
tact with the main drum, directly under the top near- 
est the doflfer. It is bent so as to catch what gins, 
dirt, &c., may fall upon it ; a small roller receiving 
its motion from the dofier shaft is made to turn in this 
blade, so as to wind on the loose fibres, &c. caught 
by it. 

This is a greater improvement than at first it might 



22 CARDING ENGINE. 

seem. I tried one of them on an eighteen inch card, 
the small roller revolving some six or eight times per 
minute, and during a run of but three hours, this roller 
was cleaned twice, and the astonishing quantity of 
ten ounces of the poorest waste made in the whole pro- 
cess of manufacturing was turned out. This, in a 
system of fourteen or sixteen cards, would amount to 
more dirt and other impurities, (exclusive of flowings 
and waste,) than all the urchins, slats, and licker-ins 
could, in the same time possibly clean out : this blade 
placed upon the whole range would take out from 
eight to nine pounds of this waste, unfit for any use, in 
the short space of three hours — being well nigh thirty- 
five pounds in a working day of twelve hours. That 
a result so great in its importance should spring froi^ 
so simple a contrivance, might well be discredited, if 
it could not be substantiated by a fair trial. This 
blade is stationary, and turned up at its top or edge, 
(being in close proximity to the main drum) creates 
a current of air, which serves to throw out these im- 
purities from the main drum, and deposite them on its 
hollow part ; the roller revolving quite slow, keeps 
the impurities from flying back again to the surface 
of the drum, and winds them into a fleece to be re- 
moved when large enough. 

Various other improvements are to be found in 
operation on many of the engines made at this time, 
which reflect much credit upon their authors. Long 
cottons require more carding than short, and in many 
cards, the feed rollers of the former are made to re- 
volve with a slower speed, or the main drum is driven 



1 



CARDING ENGINE. 23 

quicker than in those of the latter. The main drum 
ought to run as near the feeding rollers as possible, 
serving to have the better hold of the fibres. 

The feeding rollers ought to be in diameter a little 
less than double the length of the staple to be carded. 
In this way the teeth will take hold of each fibre 
separately, and deliver it to the top slats as it was 
taken from the rolls. 

A regular system of cleaning and stripping is of 
essential importance. The common mode is to strip 
two, three or four slats on one card, and so through 
the whole system ; then to commence again on the 
first card, repeating the operation the third or fourth 
time if necessary. This course pursued, the top slats 
will better clean and separate the gins, &c. from the 
main drum, and uniformity of work is obtained. 

Other ways are preferred at the option of the man- 
ager. Some strip every alternate top : thus, the 1st, 
3d, 5th and 7th, then the 2d, 4th, 6th and 8th, and so 
on for the rest ; while many think this the most prac- 
ticable, viz., the 1st, 4th, 7th and 10th, &c. 

The mode of grinding is various. In many modern 
mills an ingenious machine is used consisting of a 
small cylinder some four or six inches in width, made 
to traverse alternately from the right to the left, and 
vice versa. This performs its office with much pre- 
cision, and is coming into general use. 

The old mode, however, is as yet more or less used. 
It consists of a simple revolving wood or iron cylinder 
covered with emery, which is made to bear gently 
against the card to be sharpened. Frequently a board 



24 CARDING ENGINE. 

or cloth coated with emery, is held upon the main and 
dofFer drums for the same purpose. 

Where the top slats are held by the hand to be 
sharpened, the utmost care and steadiness are indis- 
pensable. This, however, is done much better by the 
machine above mentioned. 

An uniform temperature should be maintained in 
the preparation department. In many mills this is 
accomplished by the use of steam. This mode, while 
it regulates, also purifies the air. 

The sheets are distinguished by the number of 
teeth in the breadth of wire — three and a half inches 
for the cylinder, and two for the top sheets — twenty 
of these are in an inch, forming a crown : hence there 
will be 70 teeth in the cylinder, and 40 in the top 
sheets. Explanation of the fineness of the sheets of 
diflferent carding, is given in Table X, under " Various 
Tables, &c." 

In a treatise like this, it will not be expected that 
all the features and technicalities of the art of carding 
wall be explicitly delineated. All practical carders 
are aware, that a train of ideas instructive in their 
nature, and almost illimitable in extent, are the result 
of experience and investigation. 

No machine employed in the art of cotton manu- 
facturing, is more important, or deserving of greater 
study, — no machine which performs more admirably 
its operations — so delicate in their nature and so tri- 
umphantly perfect in their adaptation ; no machine 
which does greater homage to the ingenuity of man, 



CARDING ENGINE. 25 

and which yields, in a greater degree, a more produc- 
tive result, than the carding engine. 

To behold the movements of a system of these ma- 
chines, full of activity and obedience, is to gaze upon 
so many offerings of the reward of genius to those 
master-spirits, who gave birth to features so feeble in 
their beginnings, disasters and struggles, but which, 
like the sturdy oak planted in a rugged soil, have flour- 
ished and become mighty. 

A stranger gazing upon the crank comb-motion, of 
inimitable beauty, cannot but reverence the spirit of 
invention, which presided in the bosom of that great 
man, Richard Arkwright, its inventor. 

In his astonishment that so important a mechan 
ism — so ptactically philosophical, should have for its 
author a poor factory boy, he imagines every stroke 
a vibration of homage and respect meted out to him 
by the innumerable representatives of his sagacious 
mind and irresistible genius. 



DRAWING FRAMES. 

This machine serves quite a different purpose from 
the Carding Engine. Its office is to elongate the end 
or sliver delivered from the card, or railway drawing- 
head, to straighten the fibres, and lay them side by 
side parallel to each other. Its operation serves to 

3 



26 DRAWING FRAMES. 

make even the whole work by uniting many ends into 
one, and to draw down the shver previous to its being 
run through the fly or roving frame. The fibres of 
the end formed by the cards are not perfectly straight- 
ened by that process, being doubled or crossed on each 
other. When properly managed, the drawing frame 
straightens these filaments. 

Among its principal features, are the top and bot- 
tom rollers ; the former are covered with suitable 
leather, highly coated with a kind of varnish, to 
render them perfectly smooth ; the latter are some- 
what larger, and fluted so as to retain a firm hold upon 
the tender filaments. Most frames have three pairs 
of these rollers in front of each other, in one position, 
placed at proper distances as the length of staple may 
require. 

The bottom rollers are driven by wheel- work, with 
diflferent velocities, adapted to the length of draughts 
required. The top rollers are driven by the friction 
of the flutings of the bottom rollers. 

In some frames of recent construction, four pairs 
of rollers are used, serving to give three draughts. 

Another feature of this machine is the roller-beam, 
which supports the several heads. The front roller- 
stand is stationary, but the middle and back roller- 
stands can be moved so as to come near, or recede 
from, the front roller, or each other, suiting the differ- 
ent staples of cotton that may be used. This is an 
important improvement in all roller machines, and one 
which has not been very long in use in this country. 
The top rollers, driven by the friction of the flutings, 



DRAWING FRAMES. 27 

rest their ends in the stands, and a suitable weight is 
made to bear them down in their middle by a wire, 
which holds firm upon them a wooden or brass bear- 
ing. Most commonly the front roller is weighted 
separately. 

Top brushes, made of suitable wood, and covered 
with cloth, rest against the top rollers to keep the sur- 
face smooth, and retain what impurities may have 
lodged upon them. In some frames, brushes com- 
pressed and held by a spiral spring, rest against the 
bottom rollers for the same purpose. The slivers to be 
drawn, are introduced to the back rollers, being sepa- 
rated by projecting pins from a cross bar. Sometimes 
two or four of these ends are run through the rollers, 
and drawn into one end. The end thus drawn, with 
increased doubling, acquires uniformity, and is well 
prepared for making even and perfect work. 

To draw the last end to its grist, in one operation, 
would illy perform its required office, arising from its 
great attenuation. This is done by degrees, while 
passing through the several heads ; the second serving 
to draw the first, the third the second, and so on for 
the rest. As many as eight heads are in use in some 
frames, but for common numbers not more than three 
or four. Different carding masters have as various 
views respecting the number of doublings, and extent 
of draught to be given the cotton ; some preferring 
but a few of the former, and others many, for the same 
quality of work. In most frames in this country, 
there is not a very extensive number of doublings, 
from the fact that most of our yarns are coarse and 



28 DRAWING FRAMES. 

medium numbers. On very fine work it is common 
to extend the number as high as 100,000; this quan- 
tity is deemed sufficient for any number of yarn 
whatever. 

Excellent coarse yarns are made from roving of 
only sixty-four doublings. 

The different qualities of stock used require more 
or less doubling, as the manager may direct. 

Long straight cotton, whose filaments are uniform, 
requires but a few, while curly matted stock requires 
more doublings. It must be obvious, that a uniform 
quality of stock should be used. 

It is not uncommon however, in many coarse mills, 
to mix cotton of different length of staple, from the 
shortest Upland to fair New Orleans, and pass them 
through the same operation. Now a little reflection 
wull convince us that nothing more injurious could be 
done to the whole ; the longer fibres in passing through 
the lapping machine would be broken, the short would 
not combine, the stronger would throw out the short 
and weak in cai^ding, and much stock go to waste ; 
in the drawing and roving processes it would be im- 
possible to draw the filaments to an uniform sliver ; 
besides, extra labor is required, poor work obtained, 
and thereby the credit of the manufacture impaired. 

Many managers approve of mixing a number of 
qualities of cotton, but in our opinion two are sufli- 
cient, and one is more practicable to make an even 
warp. Where the preparation is ample, and two sys- 
tems are employed, it is an advantage to use two 
qualities, one for warp and the other for weft. This 



DRAWING FRAMES. 29 

practice is coming into use, and is found to be cheaper, 
as a poorer cotton, (as previously intimated) can be 
run into the weft yarn. This presupposes the differ- 
ent machines adjusted to suit the staple of cotton 
used. 

In some drawing frames, a double roller beam, and 
therefore a double draught at the same doubling, has 
been introduced ; this does well on coarse, but answers 
not so well for medium or fine numbers. In many 
frames, the draught or extension of the sliver is th~e 
same in the several heads. 

In a frame of four heads, the three first putting up 
six, and the last four ends, and the draught in the 
proportion of 4.75 to 1, we have this ratio: 

6 X 6 X 6 X 4 = 864 __ 
4.75x4.75x4.7 5x4.75 = 517,57 ~ * 

Then with 864 doublings, the sliver is 1.66 times 
stronger. Suppose it weighed No. 25=//^= 15,06 
showing that many more fibres are compressed and 
formed in the last sliver, from their being drawn and 
doubled. 

Various improvements have been made upon this 
machine, some of which are enumerated. 

The cans which receive the tender slivers from the 
rolls, are made to revolve slowly : this lays the draw- 
ing more carefully than the old mode. Some cans fill 
from the bottom, and many other ways are employed 
for this purpose. The most practicable machine for 
this purpose is furnished by Messrs. Dean and Morse, 
of Taunton, Ms, Large cans are coming into gen- 



30 DRAWING FRAMES. 

eral use ; they save much bad work, piecing and 
labor. 

In many frames the front roll is made quite large. 
This though a novel, is an excellent improvement. 
The draught of each head is increased or diminished 
by changing the front roll wheel or wheels, denomi- 
nated " change wheels." 

Another feature in the class of improvements is the 
stop motion. It consists of a rest or guide supported 
by a rod or pin, upon which it is nearly balanced, re- 
quiring only the weight of the sliver to make it stand 
perpendicular. As the end breaks, this rest or guide 
drops down, and a projecting point bears upon the rod 
which turns partly round, another point presses a 
catch, this catch turns on its stud, when another point 
is lowered, and permits a rod to be forced ahead by 
means of a spiral spring, which serves to move the 
lever, through which runs the belt. This is quite an 
ingenious invention, and serves its purpose quite 
well. 

By the introduction of the large cans and this mo- 
tion, better^ and at the same time, cheaper work is 
obtained ; a saving of one or two hands is made, and 
frequently in mills where the drawing is but lightly 
drawn and adapted for fine work, it is not uncommon 
for a small girl to furnish drawing for eighty or a hun- 
dred looms. 

There have been introduced in some mills, a mech- 
anism to equalize the grist of the drawing. It appears 
to be practical, and promises to answer its purpose. 
Still as an invention it admits of improvement. It 



DRAWING FRAMES. 31 

strikes us that the regulator-rod should be more prop- 
erly adjusted. 

Some other novel features are to be found on a 
number of frames, ingenious in their construction 
and quite serviceable in their office, among which is 
" the Coiler and Winder," a decided improvement. 

Close attention to the working parts is required, 
and an uniform degree of friction ought to be given 
the rollers. 

All the bearings ought to run as perfect and easy 
as possible, and cleanliness in this, as in all of the 
branches, demands its deserved supremacy. 

The rollers ought not to be too heavily weighted 
on light work — this, in all drawing, is a point which 
experienced carders know, requires judgment and 
care. A new mode of weighting the drawing is in use 
on many frames : it consists of a lever, upon the end 
of which is a ball, movable by means of a set-screw* 
This serves its purpose admirably, as the weight re- 
quired by the different grist of drawing and change of 
w^eather, can easily be given by moving the ball to the 
right or left. 

The spirit of invention, so prevalent in our day, 
seems to have thrown its mantle upon us as a nation, 
and no where in a greater degree do we behold its 
fruits, than in the progress of the art of Cotton man- 
ufacturing. This is clearly seen by contrasting the 
beautiful machines, so full of seeming magic power, 
of our own day, with those of Arkwright and Slater, 
so rough in their appearance, and, at best, imperfect 
in their operation. 



32 ROVING FRAMES. 



ROVING FRAMES. 

The next machine employed in the process of man- 
ufacturing, is the Roving Frame. It serves to draw 
the drawing-sliver down to a proper grist, and give 
to it a small degree of torsion. The greatest care is 
required at this stage of the art in preserving the uni- 
formity of the rove, as upon this depends the evenness 
of the yarn. 

Various machines have been presented to the no- 
tice of manufacturers for performing this operation. 
The most important of them will be noticed ; and 
first, the Eclipse Roving Frame. 

This machine produces good rovings, and is much 
in use in spinning coarse numbers. It is quite simple 
in its construction, occupies less room and takes less 
power to drive it than any other rove frame I have 
ev^r seen. 

The ends as they descend from the rollers, are con- 
densed by the opposing surfaces of a traveling endless 
belt ; another similar belt, upon which rest the spools, 
serves to wind the rovings. 

This machine is capable of being driven at a very 
high speed ; the front roller frequently revolving from 
seven hundred to seven hundred and fifty revolutions 
per minute. There are but ten spools in these ma- 
chines, but from five to six hundred hanks per day can 
be turned out with ease. 

There are some objections made to these machines, 
some of which are their liability to collect considera- 



ROVING FRAMES. 33 

ble dirt, &c. in their operation, and the tendency of 
one end catching on and revolving with those nearest 
it. Still they are an astonishingly productive ma- 
chine, and answer quite well for coarse and medium 
work. 

Another machine which has been presented, is the 
Tube Frame, sometimes called the Taunton Speeder, 
and Dyer's Frame ; this latter name is more common 
in England, being the name of the gentleman who 
patented it there in 1825. 

The principal features wherein it differs from the 
Eclipse frame, are its complexity, and in its mode of 
twisting or condensing. 

In some of these frames two rows of spools form 
quite a novel feature. These perform their office 
very well, but are better adapted for coarse than fine 
yarns. The rovings made from this machine, are 
very similar to those of the Eclipse frame. 

Another machine, or rather an improvement on 
the Tube frame, is in operation in many mills, called 
the Plate Speeder. 

It consists of a pair of friction plates, through which 
the rove is made to pass, each sliver being provided 
with a pair. These plates revolve rapidly in opposite 
directions, serving to twist and untwist the rove in 
the same way as in the Tube frame. 

The surface of these plates do not press against 
each other more than three-eights of an inch from 
their circumference ; this part is beveled, so as to 
make the plates nearest the rollers stand from each 
other in order to bring the bevels parallel ; an angle 



34 ROVING FRAMES. 

is thus formed, and the point presses the bobbin, mak- 
ing it to wind firmly. These plates are so constructed 
that they may be used for coarse or fine work. 

Some carders like them well, but it is generally 
acknowledged that the Taunton and Eclipse Roving 
frame, are better adapted for making a more uniform 
rove, and for turning out a greater quantity in a given 
time. 

In some mills, a machine denominated the Double 
Speeder, is used for making rovings. It is somewhat 
complex in its construction. The drawing is passed 
through a set of rollers, where it undergoes a suitable 
draught, and is made to receive a slight degree of 
twist by the spindle below. 

The rovings formed by this, are frequently passed 
through another machine similar in its nature, having 
a row of spindles on each side of the frame. These 
machines, when properly managed, make excellent 
rovings. 

A great improvement on this, and all other roller 
machines, has been introduced. It consists in the 
bevel of the rollers, whereby the front will be some- 
what lower than the back roller. The twist given to 
rovings, or yarn, is more properly distributed as it pro- 
ceeds up nearer the middle surface of the rollers. 
These machines are similar, though not so complex, 
as the Bobbin-and-Fly Frame of recent construction. 

In many fine mills, a machine called a Stretcher, 
is used to draw down the rove to its required fine- 
ness, performing the operation better than could be 
done in the Fly Frame. 



ROVING FRAMES. 35 

But the most perfect and beautiful machine ever 
presented to the notice of manufacturers for making 
even rovings, is the Bobbin-and-Fly Frame of Messrs, 
Cocker and Higgins, improved by Henry Houlds- 
worth, jun. of Glasgow, Scotland.* 

It is quite complicated in its construction, and dis- 
plays the ingenuity of its builders, for which they are 
so deservingly celebrated. It possesses many novel 
and entertaining features for the study of the philos- 
opher and mechanic, and is generally acknowledged 
to be one of the most beautiful and scientific machines 
ever invented. Its various motions and windings, its 
perfect work, and its almost speaking triumph of gen- 
ius, are indeed a rich treat to a looker-on. 

A better explanation of its features and movements, 
cannot be given, than that of the noted Dr. Ure,^in 
his work on the Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain. 

There are two principal points which claim the at- 
tention of the reader — the mode of twisting and the 
winding-on motion. 

Speaking of these the learned Doctor says : " The 
twisting is effected by the revolution of the spindle to 
which the fly-fork is attached, while the sliver, in its 
passage from the roller to the bobbin, proceeds along 
the arm of the flyer, which, being of one piece with 
the spindle, revolves with it ; the quantity of twist 
given to the roving depends upon the ratio between 
the surface speed of the front roller and the revolu- 

* This machine has been materially modified and improved by 
American mechanicians. This remark will apply respecting most 
of British and foreign machines. 



36 ROVING FRAMES. 

tiotis of the spindles. The winding-on was accom- 
plished in jack frames, by an uniform motion applied 
by a carrier roller to the surface of the roving on the 
bobbins, which was made to correspond exactly with 
the surface speed of the front roller ; but in the bob- 
bin-and-fly frame it is accomplished by giving to the 
bobbin such a velocity that the difference between 
the motion of the delivering end at the arm of the 
flyer shall equal the surface motion of the roller, or 
the supply of the sliver. This distinction between the 
action of the jack-frame (to which, in the winding- 
on the tube-frame may be assimilated,) and the bob- 
bin-and-fly frame, must be kept constantly in view. 

In the bobbin-and-fly frame, the bobbin revolves 
round the spindle, and not at right angles to it, as in 
the jack-frame, which circumstance removes many of 
the objections justly urged against the latter contri- 
vance. The first bobbin-and-fly frames were of a very 
complicated kind, containing three or four conical 
drums for producing the several variable motions. 

From the position of the bobbin upon the axis of the 
spindle, it is obvious that every revolution of the spin- 
dle or delivering arm of the flyer round the bobbin 
supposed at rest, or ahead of it supposed in motion, 
will wind up a length of roving equal to the determi- 
nate periphery of the bobbin, the end of the roving 
being previously attached to it. But as the number 
of revolutions of the spindle requisite to give the de- 
sired degree of twist has no necessary connection with, 
but, in fact, greatly exceeds the number of turns re- 
quired to wind up the length of roving delivered by 



ROVING FRAMES. 37 

the front rollers, it will follow that, unless some scheme 
be contrived for lessening progressively the number 
of revolutions of the flyer round the bobbin, the ro- 
ving will be coiled up too fast, and will be infallibly 
stretched and broken. This scheme cannot consist 
in reducing the number of revolutions of the flyer, (for 
these must be proportional to the desired degree of 
torsion) but in making the bobbin revolve in the same 
direction with the spindle, but at a speed so much 
less than it as to cause the circumference of the bob- 
bin to fall behind the delivering arm of the flyer, so 
that the difference of their velocities shall equal the 
rate at which the roving issues from the front roller. 
Thus, if a given length of roving, equal, for instance, 
to the periphery of the front roller, or four inches, be 
equal also to one circumference of the bobbin at a cer- 
tain stage of its increase, then, to wind up this length, 
the arm of the flyer must revolve several times about 
the bobbin till it has got ahead of its surface rotation 
by four inches ; and this may be effected either by 
making the spindle turn once round while the bobbin 
stands still, or by making the bobbin revolve one turn 
less than the spindle, whatever may be the speed of 
the spindle. If the spindle, for example, makes ten 
turns while the above four inches are given out by 
the rollers, then the bobbin will require to make nine 
turns ; or, if the spindle makes twenty turns, the bob- 
bin will require to make nineteen. The same result 
will be produced whatever be the speed of the spindle, 
provided the difference between the circular space, 
percurred by the spindle and the bobbin, in the given 



38 , ROVING FRAMES. 

time remains four inches. This difference, which 
represents exactly the requisite winding-on motion, 
is, therefore, dependent jointly upon the speed of the 
front roller, or delivering motion, and upon the size of 
the circumference of the bobbin at the particular stage 
of winding-on, and is quite independent of the twist 
or the velocity of the spindle. From the manner in 
which the first bobbin-and-fly frames were con- 
structed, every change in the twist required a corres- 
ponding change in the speed of the bobbin — a change 
not proportional to that of the twist, but such as 
would preserve the difference between the motion of 
the spindle and bobbin as it was, relatively to the 
roller. Thus if the spindle, turning ten times while 
the bobbin turned nine times, gave the proper differ- 
ence of motion = 1, for winding-on, then if the twist 
was doubled, the speed of the bobbin would require to 
be more than doubled, for, as the spindle would then 
turn twenty times, the bobbin ought to turn not eight- 
een, but nineteen times, in order to maintain the same 
difference of motion = 1, as at first. 

The object of the recent improvements of this im- 
portant machine, for most of which the world is 
indebted to Mr. Houldsworth, has been to get rid of 
the difficulty of making these perpetually recurring 
and very intricate adjustments of the speed of the 
bobbin, which were found in practice beyond the ca- 
pacity of most overlookers of the preparation room of 
cotton mills, who seldom arrived at the correct differ- 
ence till after an expensive and wasteful series of 
errors and alterations, whereby the quality of the work 



ROVING FRAMES. 39 

was more or less damaged for several weeks at each 
change of the twist or of the cotton staple. 

In the coarse bobbin-and-fly frame, it is usual to 
make the spindle go quicker than the bobbin, and in 
the fine to make it go slower, by which the winding 
goes on backwards. Let us state a case in numbers 
for the sake of illustration. If 45 inches of roving 
are to be wound upon a bobbin whose barrel is 4^ 
inches in circumference, 10 turns will be required. 
Suppose that these 45 inches should receive 30 turns 
of twist, the spindle, and consequently its attached 
flyer, must give these 30 turns during the winding 
on of the roving. If the bobbin therefore is 1^ inch 
in diameter, it must make 10 turns for the winding 
on, and 30 turns in following the spindle ; in all 40 
revolutions. 

If the bobbin be 3 inches in diameter, or 9 in cir- 
cumference, it must make only 5 turns to wind on 
the 45 inches ; these 5 turns added to the 30 turns 
required for twist, make 35 revolutions : and thus for 
any other dimensions of the bobbin. It hence results, 
that the number of turns of the bobbin, plus the num- 
ber of turns of the spindle, is a quantity always in- 
versely as the diameter of the bobbin. The motion 
of the bobbin and spindle is simultaneous and in the 
same direction, with a difference varying more or less 
according to the variable diameter of the bobbins. 
But to render the matter still plainer, suppose for a 
moment the spindle to be stationary ; then the bobbin 
must turn with such a velocity, that it shall wind the 
roving just as fast as the front rollers deliver it. This 



40 ROVING FRAMES. 

roving comes forward at a uniform rate ; but the bob- 
bin growing continually larger in diameter, should 
turn with a velocity uniformly retarded. 

Let us now restore motion to the spindle : it is evi- 
dent that when the winding is forwards, as in the fine 
fly frame, we must deduct from the rotation of the 
bobbin, needed for winding on the roving, that of the 
spindle required for the twist ; for the circumference 
of the bobbin being 4|- inches, 10 turns take up 45 
inches. These 10 turns deducted from the 30 made 
by the spindle, leave only 20 turns for the effective 
speed of the bobbin ; or, if the circumference be 
9 inches, 5 turns will take up the 45 inches, if the 
spindles be at rest ; but if the spindle makes 30 turns 
for twist, the effective speed of the bobbin will be 
30 — 6 = 25 turns. Hence for the fine bobbin-and- 
fly frame we find that the number of turns of the spin- 
dle, minus the number of turns made by the bobbin 
in the same time, is a quantity inversely as the diam- 
eter of the bobbins. 

In the coarse frames the bobbin should move faster 
than the spindle, and its speed should go on diminish- 
ing; while in the fine frame, the speed of the bobbin 
is less than that of the spindle, and it goes on progress- 
ively increasing. For this reason the cones of these 
two machines are set in opposite directions. This 
arrangement is not, however, indispensable, for the 
cone might be placed similarly in each ; but as the 
fine frame has a good deal of twisting to perform, the 
bobbin would need to turn still more rapidly than in 
the coarse frame, which would consume more moving 



SPINNING MACHINES. 41 

force, for which reason it has been found more advan- 
tageous to make it revolve in the opposite direction." 

For a more faithful delineation and description of 
this complex and beautiful machine, the reader is 
referred to the works of this scientific man. 

One of these machines, with the improved spring 
presser attached, forms a striking contrast with the 
can and jack roving frame, constructed and used by 
Arkwright. 



SPINNING MACHINES. 

The spinning machines serve to complete the ope- 
ration of drawing and twisting. Of these there are 
many kinds, performing their office with much pre- 
cision. 

The Flyer-frame will claim our first attention. It 
is quite simple in its construction, and remains much 
in use. 

The roving is passed through a double set of rollers 
where it undergoes a suitable draught, when the spin- 
dle below draws it down and gives to it the requisite 
twist similar to the bobbin-and-fly frame, though in a 
greater degree. 

As it leaves the front roller, it is led through a guide 
directly over the centre of the spindle, when it passes 
round the arm of the flyer two or three times, -and 
through the eyelet, to the bobbin, which, by its fric- 
tion, serves to wind it firm. 
4 



42 SPINNING MACHINES. 

Good yarns are made from this machine, adapted, 
however, better for warps than wefts. In some, a 
twist is formed on the top of the spindle round which 
the end passes before it reaches the flyer ; in others, 
the rollers are beveled considerably, and other im- 
provements are found quite serviceable. These ma- 
chines will spin from four to four and a half hanks 
per spindle of 25's or 30's warp in a day. 

A machine called the Ca^^pinner, or Danforth's 
Throstle, is somewhat in use in many mills. 

Instead of the flyer, a hollow cylinder or cap is 
fixed to the spindle, which is stationary, the end pass- 
ing round its lower edge to the bobbin, which is made 
to revolve by the band running round the wharve of 
the spindle. A traverse motion is given the bobbin 
as in the flyer frame. Often weft yarn is spun on 
this machine, a suitable traveling apparatus being 
given to the straight bobbin. This machine is capa- 
ble of being driven at a very high speed, (frequently 
from 110 to 120 turns per minute,) and of furnishing 
from five and a half to six hanks of No. 28's per spin- 
dle per day ; some indeed with conical caps will spin 
from seven to seven and a half hanks per spindle per 
diem. 

It makes a soft, wooly thread, and is well adapted 
for fine warps. It presents quite a novel appearance 
in its operation, as the end is whirled so rapidly round 
the polished cone, " as to project in space the appear- 
ance of a continuous conical fleecy surface, inter- 
sected by four vertical lines, coincident with the cen- 
tre and the two lateral edges of the cone. 



SPINNING MACHINES. 43 

Some objections are made to this machine ; damp, 
heavy air serves to draw too hard the end, and con- 
siderable waste is made. Yet many spinners think 
that all of the objections made, are more than balanced 
by the quantity of work it turns off. It is an ingen- 
ious invention, and reflects much credit upon its 
inventor. 

Another machine, called the Ring Spinner, or Ring 
and Traveler, has been introduced, and gives very 
good satisfaction. 

A steel spring clasp in the shape of the letter C, 
rapidly revolves round a polished ring, by the turn of 
the bobbin fixed on the spindle ; this is its principal 
feature wherein it differs from the cap spinner. 

Excellent yarns are made by this machine, and it 
will bear driving at a great speed. I have spun from i 
six to six and a half hanks of No. 28's per spindle per | 
diem on this machine. 

The yarn is adapted either for warps or wefts. 
Many managers prefer to throw aside the mule and 
use this mode of spinning for both kinds of yarn. As 
the spindle revolves rapidly, and the thread has no 
rest or guide but the traveler round the ring, the end 
is made soft and woolly, and is peculiarly adapted for 
the transverse threads of cloth. 

It requires less power to move it than the old flyer 
frame or dead spindle, to be mentioned. 

The driving bands require to be kept uniformly 
tight, to prevent their slipping, and making slack 
yarn. 

This is the greatest objection made to them ; it 



44 SPINNING MACHINES. 

would be well to have a small tightening pully similar 
to that of the cap frame in this machine. 

This is a very productive machine, the front roller 
ranging from seventy to one hundred and ten turns 
per minute. 

Another improvement presented is the Dead Spin- 
dle, sometimes called " Montgomery's Patent Spin- 
dle," and the " Glasgow Patent Spindle." 

The spindle in this machine has no motion except 
the traverse motion for winding on the yarn. 

The flyer is longer and quite different from that of 
the flyer frame. Upon the bottom of it is fastened 
the wharve, which is turned by a band in the usual 
way. The yarn is wound on the bobbin as in the 
common throstle, or like the Danforth, on tubes, or 
straight bobbins. 

These machines do pretty well, but are not capable 
of doing the quantity or quality of work turned off" 
with the Danforth or cap frame. They have, how- 
ever, many zealous partizans in this and other 
countries. 

Still another improvement upon the spindle is that 
of Mr. Henry Gore, of Manchester, England. 

It consists principally in the bearings or collars ; 
they being made somewhat larger at the lower than 
the upper end. 

This machine requires about one-fifth less moving 
power than the dead spindle, and can be driven at a 
higher speed. The common speed of the front roller 
is from seventy to ninety-five on numbers between 
12's and 25's, but it is not uncommon to run them as 



SPINNING MACHINES. 45 

high as one hundred or one hundred and five turns 
per minute. 

On common numbers this machine will spin from 
five to five and a half hanks per spindle per diem. 

The Danforth and ring are used both on warp and 
weft. This latter machine is preferred by most man- 
agers, both for the quality and quantity of work it 
turns out. 

One cannot but perceive the marked contrast be- 
tween the Danforth and ring, and the water spinning 
throstle, invented and used by Arkwright and his 
cotemporaries. 

Other improvements of the throstle and ring are in 
the course of trial which are quite flattering, and the 
day may not be far distant when a machine may be 
presented capable of eclipsing all we behold of precis- 
ion, beauty, productiveness and profit. While strides 
for the climax of fame are so predominant with us as 
a nation — particularly as an inventive nation — it 
would be singularly incredulous not to entertain the 
advancement we have made. Genius, energy of pur- 
pose, and persevering devotedness of object, are so 
preeminently characteristic of the American, that we 
imperfectly know what invention we should question, 
or what believe, until frequently we are constrained 
to acknowledge the practical utility of the same. 

The next machine for spinning yarn is the Mule. 
Generally in this country, this machine is used for 
making weft, though in some mills where a particular 
kind of yarn is required, it is common to find both 
kinds made from it. 



46 SPINNING MACHINES. 

Mules of different construction and of all sizes are 
in operation. No machine has been made the object 
of more investigation, and attended with more suc- 
cess, than the mule-jenny. 

In some, the head-stock is placed in the middle, in 
others, at one end. Many managers prefer to double 
two pairs together, one in front of the other, so as to 
be worked by one hand. Some prefer to lengthen the 
common mule so as to contain five or six hundred 
spindles, — one hand running a pair. 

Some prefer to have less than three hundred spin- 
dles in one mule. Many improvements, ingenious in 
their design, are to be found in operation on this 
machine. 

The mode of drawing out the carriage presents a 
novel feature on different mules. Upon some, the 
scroll-wheel is composed of two grooved circles, fast- 
ened to each other by means of screws, so as to suit 
itself to the different length of stretch that may be re- 
quired for the same, and different number of yarn. 

Counter bands, to prevent the slip of the drum band, 
are coming into general use. 

Weights to draw out, and to aid the spinner in put- 
ting up the carriage are much in use, relieving the 
labor of the spinner materially. Indeed, it would not 
answer our purpose in this little work, to name all the 
improvements which have been brought forward to 
the notice of the spinner; nor would it profit the 
reader without suitable explanations. 

Different spinners drive their mules at various 
speeds ; some prefer sixty and seventy as the means 



SPINNING MACHINES. 47 

of the front roller speed per minute ; others, sixty-five 
to eighty, for numbers between 14's and 30's. 

It is not uncommon in this country to run mules 
from four to five stretches of fifty-four inches per 
minute, on numbers from 20's to 30's ; this is much 
quicker than mules are driven in England and Scot- 
land, on the same numbers. 

It is generally acknowledged that, on numbers from 
14's to 30'"s, (being the numbers generally spun in this 
country,) we produce more yarn than our foreign 
competitors. 

A better quality of stock is generally used in this 
country on common numbers than in Britain. And 
it is not saying more than can be substantiated, that 
we make a cheaper and better article of common 
goods than our experienced rivals of Manchester. 

One in the time of Slater would have thought it 
a preposterous idea, that, in a period of less than forty 
years, from a beginning so feeble, we should be able 
to compete with adversaries so formidable. 

The spirit of genius, so untiring in its progress, 
which has presided in the breasts of those master 
spirits who have so well acted their part, has let fall 
its mantle upon those of our day who have proved 
themselves worthy of its protection and dignity. In 
proof of this, we refer the reader to the construction 
and operation of the great invention of the age in the 
art of cotton manufacturing, — the self-actor mule. 

This machine, so complex, so ingenious and perfect 
in its construction, and so beautiful and concise in its 
operation, has, after repeated trials, been perfected. 



48 SPINNING MACHINES. 

The attention of mechanicians for a long time had 
been directed to the attainment of an apparatus which 
would dispense with the labor of the spinner, or ren- 
der the mule similar to the throstle frame, — requiring 
no manual labor to operate it, except the piecers to 
piece the ends, fill the creels, and keep clean the 
working parts, &c. 

William Strutt, Esq. of Derby, is said to have been 
the first contriver of the self-actor mule ; not many, 
however, were ever put in operation, owing to the 
want of necessary skill and workmanship at the time 
of the invention. This gentleman was eminently 
noted for his mechanical ingenuity. 

In the work of the noted Dr. Ure, on the Cotton 
Manufacture of Great Britain, is a faithful exposition 
of the origin, progress, and present state of this ma- 
chine. The reader is referred to the same for infor- 
mation on this and all other machines used in cotton 
manufacturing. 

Speaking of this machine, the writer says on page 
196, vol. II : 

" Of the various attempts made to accomplish an 
object of so much importance to that great branch of 
business, cotton spinning, the inventions of the follow- 
ing parties only have been put into operation beyond 
the purpose of experiment ; viz. Messrs. Eaton, for- 
merly of Manchester ; Mr. De Jongh, formerly of War- 
rington ; Mr. Buchanan, of the Catrine works, Scot- 
land ; Mr. Brewster, of America ; Mr Roberts, a 
partner in the firm of Sharp, Roberts & Co. of Man- 
chester ; and Mr. Knowles, of Manchester. 



SPINNING MACHINES. 49 

Of the self-acting mules invented by Messrs. Eaton, 
ten or twelve only were put in operation in Manches- 
ter, and at Wiln, in Derbyshire, and a few in France ; 
but from their great complexity and limited produc- 
tion, the whole were soon reUnquished, except four at 
Wiln. 

Mr. De Jongh obtained two patents for self-acting 
mules, and put twelve of them in operation in a mill 
at Warrington, of which he was part proprietor, but 
with an unsuccessful result, and they were conse- 
quently given up. 

Mr. Buchanan, it is reported, has several mules, 
partly or entirely self-acting, at work in Scotland ; 
but the principle of their construction has not been 
made public. 

Of Mr. Brewster's self-acting mule, nothing is 
known beyond the report that there are mules at 
work in America, of his invention, for spinning 
wool." 

These are not mules, but a kind of self-acting jenny, 
used in woolen mills. Some quite novel features 
were presented to view ; the spindles were placed in 
a horizontal position, some ten to fifteen inches from 
the floor ; the creels containing the roving rose and 
fell in a vertical direction, &c. None of these ma- 
chines, to my knowledge, are in use at the present 
time. 

" The first approximation to a successful accomplish- 
ment of the objects in view, was an invention of a 
self-acting mule, by Mr. Roberts, one of the principal 
points of which was, the mode of governing the wind- 



50 SPINNING MACHINES. 

ing on of the yarn into the form of a cop ; the entire 
novelty and great ingenuity of which invention was 
universally admitted, and proved the main step to the 
final accomplishment of that object which had so long 
been a desideratum. 

For that invention a patent was obtained in 1825, 
and several headstocks upon the principle were made, 
which are still w^orking successfully ; but, from a 
combination of various causes, the invention was not 
extensively adopted. 

In 1827, Mr. De Jongh obtained a third patent for 
a self-acting mule; upon which plan, with the addi- 
tion of part of Mr. Roberts' invention, which was 
found to be essential, about thirty mules were made, 
part to spin cotton, and part woolen yarn. The 
greater part of these are continued at work, but, it is 
reported, with only a moderate degree of success. 

In 1830, Mr. Roberts obtained a patent for the 
invention of certain improvements ; and, by a com- 
bination of both his inventions, he produced a self- 
acting mule, which is generally admitted to have ex- 
ceeded the most sanguine expectations, and which has 
been extensively adopted." 

Such is a short sketch of the origin and progress 
of self-acting mules up to 1830 ; since that time the 
patent mule of Messrs. Sharp, Roberts & Co. has 
been extensively adopted, there being at the present 
time, (Dec. 1834,) in operation, in upwards of sixty 
mills, between 300,000 and 400,000 spindles, besides 
extensive orders in course of execution. It may be 
proper to observe, the adoption of the mechanism to 



SPINNING MACHINES. 51 

render mules self-acting, does not involve a sacrifice 
of the whole of the hand-mule, but merely that part of 
it termed the head-stock, being in value about one- 
fifth of the entire mule, the self-acting mechanism 
being contained in the head- stock, which is adapted 
to be applied to the other parts, of a mule, as the roller- 
carriage. Spindles are termed the body of the mule. 

In considering the advantages resulting to the pro- 
prietors of cotton mills from the use of self-acting 
mules, it may be stated that, although the only, or at 
any rate the principal benefit anticipated, was the 
saving of the high wages paid to the hand " spinner," 
and a release from the domination which he had for 
so long a period exercised over his employers and his 
fellow work people, it soon became manifest that other 
and very important advantages were connected with 
the use of the machine. 

The various advantages attending the use of self- 
acting mule head-stocks, were enumerated in a state- 
ment submitted by Messrs. Sharp, Roberts & Co. to 
the proprietors of cotton mills, of the principal points 
in which the following is a copy : 

" First, the advantages connected with spinning. 

" The saving of a spinner's wages to each pair of 
mules, piecers only being required, one overlooker 
being sufficient to manage six or eight pair of mules 
or upwards. 

" The production of a greater quantity of yarn, in 
the ratio of fifteen or twenty per cent, or upwards. 

" The yarn possesses a more uniform degree of 
twist, and is not liable to be strained during the spin- 



52 SPINNING MACHINES. 

ning, or in winding-on, to form the cop ; consequently- 
fewer threads are broken in those processes, and the 
yarn, from having fewer piecings, is more regular. 

" The cops are made firmer, of better shape, and 
with undeviating uniformity, and from being more 
regularly and firmly wound, contain from one-third to 
one-half more yarn than cops of equal bulk wound by 
hand ; they are consequently less liable to injury in 
packing or in carriage, and the expense of packages 
and freight (when charged by measurement) is con- 
siderably reduced. 

"From the cops being more regularly and firmly 
wound, combined with their superior formation, the 
yarn intended for warps less frequently breaks in 
winding or reeling, consequently there is a considera- 
ble saving of waste in those processes. 

" Secondly, the advantages connected with weaving. 

" The cops being more regularly and firmly wound, 
the yarn, when used as weft, seldom breaks in weav- 
ing ; and as the cops also contain a greater quantity 
of weft, there are fewer bottoms. Consequently there 
is a very material saving of waste in the process of 
weaving. 

" From these combined circumstances, the quality 
of cloth is improved, by being more free from defects, 
caused by the breakage of the warp or weft, as well 
as the selvages being more regular. 

" That the advantages thus enumerated, as deriva- 
ble from the use of self-acting mules have not been 
overrated, but in many instances have been consider- 
ably exceeded, the author, by extensive personal in- 



SPOOLING MACHINES. 53 

quiry and observation, has had ample opportunity of 
proving, &c. &c." 

This is a beautiful machine, both in its construc- 
tion and movements. It removes all imperfections 
of the old mode of spinning, makes a better thread, 
and with less care and expense. Though complex, 
yet one endowed with mechanical skill and a matured 
judgment, will soon operate it to his credit. 



SPOOLING MACHINES. 

The office which this machine performs in the art 
of manufacturing, is to wind upon larger bobbins, or 
spools, the yarn from the smaller bobbins, or cops, 
and to smooth somewhat the surface of the same. 

The most common form in use, consists merely of 
a long cylindrical shaft, containing from 10 to 16 
drums, upon which rest the spools. One drum fre- 
quently drives four spools. Arches rest over these 
drums, to keep the spools in their proper place. In 
some machines, the ends to be wound off are run 
through two or more pieces of cloth which smooths 
the thread and cleans it from dirt and other impuri- 
ties. 

The guide-pins through which pass the ends, are 
made to traverse alternately from right to left the 
length of the spools by means of a heart motion. 
These drums are covered with cloth, and require to 
be kept perfectly true. 



64 WARPING MACHINES. 

This is a very simple machine and requires but 
little power to drive it. 

One of them of sixteen drums, running at a pro- 
per speed and well managed, will spool from 2,500 to 
3,000 hanks per diem. 

A machine for the same purpose is in use in many 
mills of different construction. The spindles upon 
which the small bobbins are placed, are horizontal, 
and the spools which receive the yarn are perpendic- 
ular — being in both instances the reverse of the 
above mentioned machine. 

It performs its operations very well, requiring 
about the same labor and power as the common 
spooler. 

In some mills it is common to dispense with the 
use of this machine, — the small bobbins being taken 
directly to the warper. This is an unwise and ex- 
pensive practice ; for the great number of bobbins 
in the rack will constantly be running out, making a 
great deal of unnecessary labor and waste. 



WARPING .MACHINES. 

The next machine in the series is the Warper ; this, 
like the spooler, is quite simple in its construction. 
A suitable rack, generally divided into two parts, 
contains the spools taken from the spooler to be 
wound on the section beam : this beam is driven by 
the friction of a large cylindrical drum. 



WARPING MACHINES. 55 

Most warping machines in use in this country, are 
furnished with a stop-motion, by means of which the 
machine is instantly stopped when a thread breaks. 
This is rather a curious contrivance and exhibits the 
inventive genius of its author. It is generally as- 
cribed to the inventor of the celebrated steam gun, 
Mr. Perkins. 

It is quite complex in its parts, being formed of 
levers, dropwires, tumblers, springs, rods, &c. An 
explanation of its movements cannot be explicitly 
given without suitable plates and references. This 
invention is clearly illustrated in " Montgomery's 
Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain and America 
contrasted." 

At first, in viewing its operations, one would imag- 
ine, that, from its complex construction, it might not 
answer its purpose : but this is not the case. It per- 
forms its office better and with less care than the old 
mode of warping. 

Quite an improvement on this machine, is the in- 
troduction of balance wheels at each end of the 
driving drums. I tried this on a wide warping ma- 
chine, and found that from 15 to 20 per cent, more 
yarn could be wound on in a given time, than in the 
usual mode ; besides being more compact and even. 
This machine, being subject to many stoppages, it 
must be obvious, that a gain is here obtained. 

The bearings of the section ought to be exactly 
weighted so that an uniform length of yarn will be 
run on at either end. 

This point requires rigid attention as the weight 



56 DRESSING MACHINES. 

or lever may be moved by carelessness or accident. 
When a heavier weight is made to bear upon one 
end, that end will necessarily be smaller in circum- 
ference, and there is nothing makes worse work on 
the dressing machines : if there be but a small differ- 
ence in the diameter, in winding off, it will be found 
that one will gain on the other so that one part of 
the yarn will be drawn tight and the other as loose. 

This is an evil which will he found out by the 
dresser, if not attended to by the warper tender. 

The circumference of the long cylinder is gener- 
ally one yard ; upon the end of its axis is a worm 
playing into a gear wheel, the object being to meas- 
ure the warp. An alternate traverse motion is given 
the guide-bar. Close attention should be given this, 
to furnish even and uniform warps for the next ma- 
chine in the series. 



DRESSING MACHINES. 

The web to be woven in the loom, is formed by 
this machine. Sometimes four, but generally eight 
of the sections made by the warping machines, are 
run through rollers on to the top or centre beam ; 
one-half being at each end. 

Various patterns are found in operation. Some 
prefer to run them at a high, others, at a low speed. 
Some to keep the temperature of the room quite hot, 
others not above 60o. 



DRESSING MACHINES 57 

In some machines a pipe is led along under the 
yarn, serving to dry it quicker than the common 
fans. Sometimes two of these fans are only found 
in operation : sometimes three, with a kind of heater 
placed under the centre beam. 

A species of upright fans similar to the windmill, 
have been introduced in many mills ; they move 
with less power and cause a purer current of air to 
flow, than the old mode. 

As in the mode of drying, so in smoothing or 
brushing, various ways are employed. In some ma- 
chines, two cylindrical brushes, one over, and one 
under the warp, are made to revolve in a direction 
the reverse of the yarn. 

In another kind, are to be found two flat brushes, 
one over, and the other under the yarn, moved too 
and fro in such a manner that they touch -the yarn 
only in one direction. 

On many machines but one of this kind of brushes 
is used, viz., the top one. This kind of brushing is 
deemed the most preferable. 

The yarn passes through heavy calender rolls, run- 
ning in the size, their great weight serving to expel 
the air contained in the filaments of the threads. An 
uniform thickness of paste or size ought to be used. 

A new and much admired mode of driving the 
brushes is presented to view in many machines of 
our day. It consists of two eccentric wheels fixed 
upon the driving shaft, with grooves, fitted to which* 
are clasps connected with the sweeps by means of 
vertical arms. This is an easy, delicate motion, and 

5 



58 DRESSING MACHINES. 

answers its purpose very well. Many other features 
are to be found in these machines, deserving the at- 
tention of the manager. 

A machine denominated "Lillie's Sizing Machine," 
has been presented, which bids fair to succeed the 
common mode of dressing. The trough is of iron ; 
on the bottom is cast a channel which serves to re- 
tain the steam fed by a large steam-pipe. There are 
openings on the upper side of this channel which are 
raised by the steam coming from the pipe. This 
steam finds its way to the yarn passing round 8, 12 
or 20 rollers arranged in two rows, in order to make 
the warp travel up and down. After the warp has 
passed all these rollers, it is compressed between two 
larger ones by means of weighted levers. It is a 
powerful machine and displays the genius of its in- 
ventor. 

'' Mr. Lillie's sizing machines will dress a length of 
warps, upwards of one mile in the course of an hour. 
Each drying cylinder in the steam range makes 20 
turns in the minute, with a diameter of 18 inches, 
or a circumference of 4-|- feet : but 4j x 20 = 90 ft. 
per minute, = 5,400 per hour, = 1800 yards. A 
common dressing machine does 10 pieces or cuts 
60 yards each in a day ; which is at the rate of 3,600 
yards in a week. * 

" One of these machines made by Mr. Lillie for Mr. 
Waterhouse, an eminent manufacturer near Man- 



* This is quite too low ; most of dressing machines in our coun- 
try furnish full 60 per cent, more length than this estimate. 



LOOMS. 59 

Chester, dresses in 12 hours, 100 warps, each 370 
yards long, which is no less than 37,000 in that time, 
being at the rate of 3,083 yards per hour, or If miles." 
No machine for dressing yarn has ever been pre- 
sented to be compared with this; but a limited num- 
ber has, as yet, been put in operation in this country. 



LOOMS. 

This is the last machine employed in the process 
of manufacture. 

Various improvements have been made upon the 
loom, the chief of which are, that of Horrocks' about 
1813, that of Bowman's of Manchester, in 1821, — of 
Horrocks' again this same year, — of Roberts' in 
1822, — of Buchanan's in 1823, — of Messrs. Stans- 
field, Briggs, Pritchard and Barraclough in 1823, — of 
Sadler's in 1825,— of Scholefield's in 1828,— of Gra- 
ham's in 1833, — of Stone's of Rhode Island in 1834, 
and of Messrs. Sharp and Roberts', &c., &c. All of 
these are important and valuable improvements. 

The crank loom of this country, is as perfect a 
machine, both in its construction and produce, as any 
in operation in Manchester, or any other place in 
Britain. 

This is acknowledged by competent judges ; and, 
indeed, some of the latest of American pattern looms, 



60 LOOMS. 

with their improvements, exceed any in use, in the 
world, in any respect. 

The manufacturers of this country are behind no 
nation in this branch, and their attention is confined in 
a great degree, to those preparatory branches, which 
they have heretofore so much neglected. There is 
not a doubt existing, that America is destined to out- 
strip the parent country in the art of cotton manu- 
facturing. Her vast water-power, her great re- 
sources, together with her increasing supply of raw 
material, are proofs quite to strong of this assertion, 
to the minds of the English people. 

Common goods, such as are generally made in this 
country, are actually manufactured and shipped to 
Manchester, cheaper than the same style of goods 
can there be purchased. 

As yet, but a few mills are in operation in this 
country on fine numbers. 

But the experiments thus far, conclusively demon- 
strate that Yankee enterprize is formidable. The 
goods turned out from the New York, the Salem, 
Portsmouth, Newburyport and other mills of the East, 
will bear rigid competition from any quarter, both in 
cost and quality. 

The produce of the improved American looms is 
from 20 to 25 per cent, more than those constructed 
some 10 or 15 years since. 

The average number of yards turned out per loom, 
per diem, on No. 16's, 36 inches wide, 56 warp 
threads to the inch, or 2020 in the whole width, and 
56 to 60 pecks per inch, is, from 34 to 40. 



COMMON SPEED OF THE VARIOUS MACHINES. 61 

Looms running on No. 28's, printing goods, with a 
64 slaie, and 60 to 64 pecks per inch, will turn out 
on an average 5 to 6 pieces of 32 yards per week. 

The general speed of the Lowell and Eastern pat- 
tern looms, is about 115 to 120 pecks per minute; 
some on light goods run as high as 125 or 130 pecks 
per minute. Beyond this speed prudence and inter- 
est teach us that it would not be advantageous to go. 



COMMON SPEED OF THE VARIOUS 
MACHINES. 

The speed of the Willow, ranges from 400 to 600 
revolutions per min., with a diameter of 30 inches. 
Those with larger cylinders, or beaters, of course re- 
volve with a slower speed ; one 3 J to 4 feet in diam- 
eter, runs from 350 to 450 turns per minute. 

The beaters of the Lapping machine are generally 
regulated from 1200 to 2000 turns per minute; and 
80 to 100 turns of the beater for one of the feeding 
rollers. It is often the case that two or more of the 
beaters revolve with the same speed. 

The common speed of the main cylinder in Card- 
ing engines, is from 115 to 125 revolutions per min., 
in some engines it is common to run them as high as 
150 or 160 turns per min., — this is too high, as the 
great surface speed of the main drum, would prove 
injurious to the fibres. 



62 COMMON SPEED OF THE VARIOUS MACHINES. 

The front rollers in the Drawing Frame from 1 to 
1|- inch in diameter, run from 250 to 300 revolutions 
per minute; with rollers of If or If inches in diam- 
eter, about 150 to 170. It is not uncommon to find 
drawing frames delivering at the rate of 60 to 75 
feet per min. Most carders prefer using the large 
sized rollers. 

The front rollers of the Eclipse Roving Frame, of 
1^ inch in diameter, revolve from 550 to 700 or even 
750 turns per minute. 

The front rollers of the Tube Frame revolve from 
475 to 600 turns per minute ; some are found running 
as high as 700 turns per minute. The speed per 
min. of the Bobbin and fly-frame front rollers is from 
130 to 150 or even 170 turns. 

The front rollers of the common Throstle Frame 
of 1-g- inch in diameter revolve from 55 to 65 on com- 
mon numbers, — the Danforth and Ring Frames from 
65 to 90 on medium numbers, and frequently as high 
as 100 to 115 on lower numbers. 

The speed of the Mule is various, being regulated 
by circumstances.; on mules making 3 or 3 J stretches 
of 56 inches per min., the common speed of the front 
rollers is from 60 to 70, and that of the spindles from 
3,700 to 4,500 turns per minute. 

Some rollers revolve from 80 to 85 turns per min., 
on low number. 

These are common speeds, but they are often varied 
at the option of the manager. 



COMMON PRODUCE OF VARIOUS MACHINES. 



63 



COMMON PRODUCE OF THE VARIOUS 
MACHINES. 

The Eclipse Roving Frame of 10 spools will fur- 
nish with ease, 900 to 1000 spindles for the Mule 
or Throstle frame. Each spindle of the Bobbin and 
fly-frame will furnish rovings for 135 to 145 mule 
spindles. Each spindle of the Tube frame will fur- 
nish rovings for 400 to 450, or more, mule spindles. 

Each mule spindle spinning on No. 28's will turn 
out 22 to 24 hanks per week of 69 hours. 

Each spindle of the common Throstle frame will 
turn out 20 to 25 hanks of No. 32 per week. 

Each spindle of the Danforth frame will turn out 
32 hanks of No. 30 per week. The produce of the 
Ring Spinner is about the same, viz., 30 hanks per 
week of No. 28's to 30's. 

PRODUCE OF SPINNING MACHINES. 



COMMON THROSTLE. | 


RING SPINNER. ] 


DANFORTH FRAME. 


CO 

O 

!2; 


& o 

>^ 

Ph o 


Hanks 
per week. 


o 

m 

O 


■p o 


td ^ 


M 

o 
o 


^ d 
Ph p 

Ph o 




20 


65 


27 


20 


65 


38 


20 


65 


39 


25 


60 


26 


25 


60 


36 


25 


60 


36i 


28 


60 


24 


28 


60 


33 


28 


60 


33i 


32 


55 


22 


32 


55 


31 


32 


55 


32 


36 


51 


21 


36 


50 


29 


36 


50 


30 


40 


50 


18i 


40 


45 


26i 


40 


45 


28i 



64 WATER WHEELS, 



WATER WHEELS. 

There are three kinds of water wheels, — the over- 
shot, undershot and breast. When the water drives 
the wheel by 'its weight, it is demonstrated an over- 
shot, when it drives the wheel, by its velocity, an 
undershot, and when in part both of these agencies 
are employed it is denominated a breast wheel. 

The overshot wheel is the best mover, as from the 
same quantity of water there is obtained a greater 
power. It often happens that we cannot use this 
wheel, from the smallness of the fall. We then em- 
ploy the breast wheel, delivering the water somewhat 
lower than the top of the wheel. The undershot 
wheel is used when the breast will not answer ; the 
water being delivered at or below the centre. In the 
undershot wheel the power is to the effect as 3 to 1. 
Of an overshot wheel, the power is to the effect as 
3 to 2, — double the effect of an undershot wheel. 

To find the velocity of the water acting upon 
the wheel. 

V(height of the fallx64.38)r=the velocity in feet 
per second. 

1. Suppose the height of fall be 16 feet; then the 
V16x64.38=Vl030.08,=32.09 feet per second. 

To find the area of the section of a stream. 

Divide the number of feet running in one second, 
by the velocity in feet per second^:=the section of 
stream in square feet. 



WATER WHEELS. 65 

1. Suppose there be 38 feet flowing in a second, 
and the velocity of stream is 5 feet per second, then 
5)38 

7.6=the area of stream in sq. ft. 

The power of the fall is found by the following rule: 

The area of section where it acts upon the wheel 
Xheight of fallx62i=:the number of pounds the 
wheel can bear, acting perpendicularly at its circum- 
ference. This weight will keep the wheel equapoised : 
if diminished, will cause the wheel to move. 

Suppose the area of section of a stream be 5 feet, 
and its velocity 4 feet per second, with a fall of 17 
feet ; then 5x4=20=the cubic feetrunningper second. 

V (17X64. 38)=:33=: the velocity of the water at 
end of fall ; 

20 .60,6=:the section of stream at the end in 

^ 33"~ square feet. Then, .60,6x17x621=644 
pounds,=:the weight the wheel will sustain in equi- 
librium. 

The following is an extract from Banks, on Mills, 

p. 152. 

"The effect produced by a given stream in falling 
through a given space, if compared with a weight, 
will be directly as that space ; but if we measure it 
by the velocity communicated to the wheel, it will be 
as the square root of the space descended through, 
agreeably to the laws of falling bodies. 

''Experiment 1. A given stream is applied to a 
wheel at the centre ; the revolutions per minute are 
38.5. 



66 WATER WHEELS. 

'' Experiment 2. The same stream applied at the 
top, turns the same wheel 57 times in a minute. 

"If, in the first experiment, the fall is called 1., in 
the second it will be 2 ; then VI : V2 :: 38.5 : 54.4, 
which are in the same ratio as the square roots of 
the spaces fallen through, and near the observed ve- 
locity. 

" In the following experiments a fly is connected 
with the water wheel. 

" Experiment 2. The water is applied at the cen- 
tre, the wheel revolves 13.03 times in one minute. 

" Experiment 4. The water is applied at the ver- 
tex of the wheel, and it revolves 18.2 times per 
minute. 

" As 13.03 : 18.2 :: VI : V2 nearly. 

" From the above we infer, that the circumfer- 
ences of wheels of different sizes may move with 
velocities which are as the square roots of their di- 
ameters without disadvantage, compared one with 
another, the water in all being applied at the top of 
the wheel ; for the velocity of falling water ■ at the 
bottom or end of the fall is as the time, or as the 
square root of the space fallen through ; for example, 
let the fall be 4 feet, then, as V16 : 1" :: V^ : i", the 
time of falling through 4 feet. Again, let the fall be 
9 feet, then, V16 : 1" :: V9 : f, and so for any other 
space, as in the following table, where it appears that 
water will fall through one foot in a quarter of a 
second, through 4 feet in half a second, through 9 
feet in three-quarters of a second, and through 16 
feet in one second. And if a wheel 4 feet in diame- 



WATER WHEELS. 



67 



ter moved as fast as the water, it could not revolve 
in less 1.5 seconds, neither could a wheel of 16 feet 
diameter revolve in less than three seconds ; but 
though it is impossible for a wheel to move as fast as 
the stream which turns it, yet, if their velocities bear 
the same ratio to the time of the fall through their 
their diameters, the wheel 16 feet in diameter may 
move twice as fast as the wheel 4 feet in diameter. 

TABLE. 



Height of the 


Time of falling 


Height of the 


Time of falling 


fall in feet. 


in seconds. 


fall in feet. 


in seconds. 


1 


.25 


14 


.935 


3 


.432 


16 


1. 


5 


.557 


20 


1.117 


7 


.666 


24 


1.22 


8 


^ .706 


25 


1.25 


9 


• .75 


30 


1.37 


10 


.79 


36 


1.5 


12 


.864 


40 


1.58 






45 


1.67 



" The power water has to produce mechanical 
effect, is as the q«iantity and fall of perpendicular 
height. The mec^hanical effect of a wheel is as the 
quantity of water in the buckets and the velocity. 

The power is to the effect as 3 : 2, that is, suppose 

, ^ .„ 1. 9000X2 

the power to be 9000, the eflect will be= — ^ — = 

18000 

— ^ — =z6000." 
o 

I. What power is a stream of water equal to, of 
the following dimensions, viz., 11 inches deep, 21 



68 WATER WHEELS. 

inches broad, velocity 80 feet in 13 seconds, and the 
fall 54 feet ? Ans. 30.2 H. P. 

z=1.60 square feet: — area of stream. 

144 ^ 

13" : 80 :: 60" : 369.2 lineal ft. per min., velocity. 

369.2x1.60—590.720 cubic feet, per min. 

590.720x62.5=36920 pounds per min. 

36920x54=1993680, momentum at a fall of 54 feet. 

1993680 .__, 
— — — — —r=45.3 horse power. 
44000 ^ 

3 : 2 :: 45.3 : 30.2, effective power. 

By allowing one foot above the wheel for the ad- 
mission, and one below the wheel for the escape of 
the w^ater, we find that 54 — 2 = 52 feet diameter 
of wheel that can be used or applied^to this fall. 

52x3.1416=163.3632=circumf of wheel. 

60x6 =360 feet per min.mvelocity of wheel. 

590.720 

— oT^Tj— =1.641=area of buckets; the buckets 

being but half full — 1.641x2=3.282=the area, 

say this wheel is 4 feet wide ^-—=.8205, depth 

of shrouding.* 

ir.o o^o^ =^-^ revolutions per min. of wheel. 
Ido.ooo-4 

P'r of water=45.3 H. P., i diam'r, 52 feet. 

Effective p'r of water, 30.2 H. P., \ Br'th, 4 " 

Depth of shrouding, .8205. 



* The depth of shrouding here given would be none too much in 
practice. 



WATER WHEELS. 69 

2. Required the power of a water wheel 15 feet 
in diameter, 12 feet wide and shrouding 15 inches 
deep. Ans. 25.5. 

15x3.1416=47.1 240, circumference of wheel. 

12x1^=15 square feet, area of buckets. 

60x4=240, Hneal feet per min.^velocity. 

240x15=3600 cubic feet of water with full buck- 
ets,=1800 when half full. 

1800x62.5=112500 lbs. of water per minute. 

112500x15=1687500, momentum falling 15 feet. 

3:2:: 1687500 : ^^ =25.5, horse power. 

To find the centre of gyration of a water wheel. 

Find the radius of the wheel and the weight of its 
arms, rim, shrouding and float boards. Multiply the 
weight of rim by the square of the radius, and double 
this product. Next, the weight of the arms, into the 
square of the radius, and doubled. Then the weight 
of the water in action, by the square of the radius. 
These products form a dividend. Double the sum of 
the weights of the rim and arms, and add the weight 
of the water to them, for a divisor. 

1. Required the radius of the circle of gyration 
of a water wheel 22 feet in diameter ; the weight of 
arms being 3 tons, shrouding 4 tons, and the water 
3 tons ? 



70 WATER WHEELS. 

R=4tonsXlPx2=: 968. 
A-3 tonsXlPx2= 726. 
W=3 tonsxlP= 363. 



2057=a dividend, 
then, 2x(4-l-3-i-3)=20=a divisor. 

^2057 — ^io3=rl0.198 nearly. 

"It is desirable that the millwright should possess 
short, easy rules, which would answer the purposes 
of practice rather than the conditions of mere theory. 
The following will be found useful, as they give the 
power with allowance for friction and waste of water. 

1. For an undershot : — 

Height of fallxqu antity of water flowing per min. 

5000 ~^~ 

the number of horse power which the effect is 
equal to. 

2. For an overshot : — 

Power of an undershotx2j:=rhorse power. 

3. For a breast wheel : — 

Find the power of an undershot from the top of 
the fall to where the water enters the bucket ; then 
for an overshot for the rest of the fall, — the sum of 
these two is the power of the breast wheel. 

Note. — The quantity of water flowing per minute, and the 
height of tlie fall are botli taken in feet. 

Ex. What power can be obtained from an under- 
shot wheelj the fall being 25 feet, the sectioji of the 



STEAM ENGINE. , 71 

stream being 9 feet, and the velocity of the water 18 

feet per minute ? 

9x18x25 4050 ^, ^ , , 

- -^^^ — =^K7vrv7A=.81 01 a horse power, one horse 
5000 5000 ^ 

power being unit. 

And an overshot in the same situation would be 

. 81x2. 5=:2. 025 horse power. And if in a breast 

wheel, the water enters the bucket 10 feet from the 

top of the fall, then we have, 

1^^^^2i_2?ix2i=i^^=.36 for an over- 
5000 ^2 5000 5000 

shot, and for the undershot we found it before .81 ; 

hence, .36H-.81 = 1.17 horse power for the breast 

wheel."* 



STEAM ENGINE. 

The remarks which follow are practical, and may- 
be found of service to the millwright. Some of the 
ideas advanced, however, are not wholly original, but 
have been gathered from the works of eminent mech- 
anicians. 

The most common proportions of the boiler are, 
viz.; width 1, depth 1. 1, or 1. 2, and length 2. 5 : the 
size or capacity being somewhat more than the power 
of the engine for which they are intended. 

Boulton and Watt assume 25 feet of space for each 

* Grier's Mechanic's Calculator, p. 213. 



72 STEAM ENGINE. 

horse power. Some other engineers allow 5 feet of 
surface of water. 

In Watt's common low pressure engine, steam is 
admitted into the cylinder whose elastic force is about 
that of the atmosphere, which is 15 lbs. to the square 
inch ; but the effective pressure is generally reckoned 
12 lbs. or four- fifths of this number to the square inch, 
allowance being made for friction and imperfect va- 
cuums. The working pressure is generally reckoned 
at 10 lbs. to the circular inch, and Smeaton only makes 
it 7 lbs. The effective pressure is generally taken 
between these extremes, being equal to 9.42 lbs. to 
the circular inch. 

Mr. Tredgold gives the following table, showing 
how the power of the steam, as it issues from the 
boiler, is distributed. 

In an engine which has no condenser : 

The pressure on the boiler being . 10.000 

1. The force necessary for producing 
motion of the steam in the cylinder, .0069 

2. By cooling in the cylinder and pipes, .0160 

3. Friction of piston and waste, .2000 

4. The force required to expel the steam 

into the atmosphere, . . . .0069 

5. The force expended in opening the 
valves, and friction of the parts of an 

engine, 0622 2920 

6. By the steam being cut off before the 

end of stroke, .... .1000 

Amount of deductions, 3920 



Effective pressure, . . 6080 



STEAM ENGINE. 73 

In one which has a condenser : 

The pressure on the boiler being . 1000 

1. By the force required to produce mo- 
tion of the steam into the cyUnder, .007 

2. By the cooKng on the cyHnder and 
pipes, . . . . . . .016 

3. By the friction of the piston and loss, .125 

4. By the force required to expel the 
steam through the passages, . . .007 

5. By the force required to open and 
close the valves, raise the injection . 
water, and overcome the friction of 

the axes, ..... .063 

6. By the steam being cut off before the 

end of the stroke, . . . .100 

7. By the power required to work the 

air pump, 050 368 

Effective pressure, . 632 

Different engineers form various opinions as to the 
power of a horse. Smeaton supposes a horse able to 
raise 32,000 lbs. avoirdupois 1 foot in a minute. De- 
saguliers makes it 27,500 lbs. Boulton and Watt 
32,000 or 33,000, and the usual estimate is 44,000. 

To find the horse power of the engine. 

The effective pressure on each square inch X the 
area of piston in square inches X length of stroke in 
feet X number of strokes per minute -^ 44000 =: the 
number of horse power of the engine. 

1. What is the power of a low pressure engine, 

6 



•74 STEAM ENGINE. 

whose cylinder is 30 inches diameter, length of stroke 
6 feet, making 16 double strokes in the minute ? 

Ans. 37 H. P. 

Note. — An easy rule to find the area of the piston hi square 
inches, is this. 

The diameter X circumference 

— — - — ^area. 

4 
Here we have, 

30X(30X3.1416) =2827.44^ _ ^^^ 

4 4 ' 

area of the piston in square inches ; and 12 the effect- 
ive pressure, 6 the length of stroke, 16 the number of 
double strokes in a minute ? 

706.86 X12X6X16X2 _ 1628605.44 ^^^ ^^^^^ 
44000 44000 

power. 

If the cylinder of a high pressure steam engine has 
a piston of 5 inches diameter, with a twelve inch 
stroke, making 32 double strokes in a minute ; steam 
being admitted of an elastic force equivalent to 7 at- 
mospheres on the inside of the cylinder, its effective 
pressure will be 7 X 15= 105 lbs. to the square inch 
without friction ; but allowing one-fifth for friction, 
the effective pressure will be 105-21 = 84 lbs. to the 
square inch. 

here 5 X 3.1416 X 5 in£.o+u r ^u -4. 

. -— il_= 19.63 the area of the piston; 

hence, 19.63x84x1 X32x 2 105530.88 ^ , 

= =2 horse 

44000 44000 

power. 

The pressure of the steam in a boiler is 30 lbs. per 



STEAM ENGINE. 75 

square inch, the diameter of cylinder 12 inches, length 
of stroke 3 feet, and the engine making 30 double 
strokes per minute. Here the area of piston will be 
113.097, the velocity of piston ===3x30x2=180 feet 
per minute, and since 0.9x30-6=21, then, 

0.9X30—6X113.097X180 427506.66 ,^p, . 

z=: -=10.7 horse 

4000 4000 

power. 

It has been stated by Mr. Thomas Tredgold, that 
to ascertain the velocity of the piston when the engine 
performs its maximum, we may employ the rule, 

120x Vlength of stroke=velocity. 
If an engine has a two feet stroke, then, 
120X \/2=120xl. 4142=169.704, 
or, we may say 170, as the velocity of the piston per 
minute in feet ; wherefore, as the engine has a single 
stroke of 2 feet, we have, 

170 

= 421 strokes in the minute. 

4 ^ 

If an engine have a four feet stroke, then we have, 

120X V 4—130x2=240= 

the velocity of the piston per minute, and, 

=: 30, equal the number of strokes per minute. 

The following table shows the length of stroke and 
the number of feet the piston travels in a minute, ac- 
cording to the number of strokes the engine makes, 
working at maximum. 



76 



CENTRAL FORCES. 



Length of 


Number of 


Feet per 


Stroke. 


Strokes. 


Minute. 


Feet. 2 


43 


172 


" 3 


32 


192 


" 4 


25 


200 


" 5 


21 


210 


" 6 


19 


228 


" 7 


17 


238 


" 8 


15 


240 


" 9 


14 


250 1 



To find the power to lift a weight at any velocity, 
X the weight in lbs. by the velocity in feet, and -^ by 
the horse power ; the result is the number of horse 
power required. 



CENTRAL FORCES. 



The central forces are as the radii of the circles 
directly, and the squares of the times inversely ; also 
the square of the times are as the cubes of the distan- 
ces. When a body revolves in a circle by means of 
central forces, its actual velocity is the same as it 
would acquire by falling through half the radius by 
the constant action of the centripetal force. From 
these facts the following rules for central forces are 
derived. 



CENTRAL FORCES. 71 

Veloc. of rev. body ^ x weisht of body ^ -r r 
^ c> j^ — cciitrii. lorce 

radius of circle of revolution x 32 
velocity of revol. body ^ x weight of body _,. r 



centrifugal lorce x 32 



weight of 



the circle of gyration. 

centrif force x 32 x rad. circle 
veloc. of revolving body ^ 
the revolving body. 

^ / (rad. circle x 32 x centrifugal force) ^ ., 

weight 

There will be no difficulty in applying what has 
been said to practice. 

There are two fly wheels of the same weight, one 
of which is 10 feet diameter, and makes 6 revolutions 
in a minute ; what must the diameter of the other be 
to revolve 3 times in a minute ? Here 6 ^ : 3 ^ :: 10 : 
2.5 z=z the diameter of the second. 

What is the centrifugal force of the rim of a fly- 
wheel, its diameter being 12 feet, and the weight of 
the rim 1 ton, making 65 turns in a minute ? 

2 X 3 1416 XG5 _ ^^ ^^ ^ 
bO 

the velocity in feet per second ; hence, 
40.84 - X 1 ^3 ,3, 
32 X 6 
the tendency to burst. 

Let us employ the centre of gyration. If the fly 
above mentioned is in two halves, which are joined 
together by bolts capable of supporting 4 tons in all 
their positions, the whole weight of the wheel is 1|- 
tons, the circle of gyration is 5.5 feet from the axis of 



78 MEASUREMENT OF WATER. 

motion ; what must be its velocity so that its two 
halves may fly asunder ? 

The force tending to separate the two halves will 
be -J- of the whole force ; wherefore by the rule, 

32 X 4 X 5.5 X 2 ^^qq^q ^ the velocity. 
1.5 
11 X 3.1416 == circumference of circle of gyration, 
wherefore, 34.5576 : 30.636 :: 60 : 53.191 revolutions 
in a minute. — Grier. 

To measure the quantity of Water running in a 

River. 

Choose a part of the channel where the banks are 
of a determinate figure, and where they contract the 
channel to a uniform breadth and depth, for a distance 
of 30 or 40 feet, or more, (the longer the better,) and 
the more regular the bed of the river, the more exact 
the result of the experiment. Measure the breadth 
and average depth of the river, to find the area or 
section of the passage through which the water flows. 

Take these measures at several difl^erent places ; and 
if there be any difference at different places, find the 
area at each place, and take the average between 
them. Then proceed to find the velocity of the mo- 
tion, by throwing into the stream any substances of 
the same specific gravity of water, as pieces of turn- 
ips, gooseberries, &c. which will sink to different 
depths in the stream, and will indicate the velocity of 
the current at such depths. These trials must be re- 
peated several times, and the mean of the diflferent 
results must be taken for the average velocity of the 
stream. The portion of the river selected for the ex- 



MEASUREMENT OF WATER. 79 

periment should be marked by strings stretched across 
it, by which the observer is enabled to note more accu- 
rately the instant when the floating body passes the 
upper line and reaches the lower one. By a stop- 
watch, the number of seconds required for the stream 
to flow through the given length of channel, may thus 
be ascertained, with considerable accuracy. 

Dr. Robinson gives the following table of the rela- 
tive velocities of currents at the surface and bottom, 
and the mean between them, which will save the 
trouble of calculation in some of the most frequent 
questions of hydraulics. He takes the velocity of the 
surface of the middle of the stream, which is very 
easily measured, by any light small body, as cork, 
floating down, &c. 

From this he calculates the retarded velocity of 
bottom of the stream, and finds the medium velocity 
by the following rule : 

The velocity of the substance floating on the sur- 
face of the stream is taken in inches per second. 

From the square root of the number of inches per 
second, he deducts 1, and then squares the remainder, 
which gives the velocity at bottom, and he finds the 
mean by taking the medium between these two sums. 
Thus ; if the velocity of surface in middle be 25 in. 
per second, its square root is 5, — deduct 1=4. Square 
of thisi=:16 inches per second, the velocity at bottom, 
and 25+16=41; ^ of which=20|-=mean velocity in 
feet per second. [See Table E.] 

When it is desired to measure the quantity of water 
afforded by a stream in order to calculate the power 
of it with a given fall for mill purposes, or the quan- 



80 MEASUREMENT OF WATER. 

tity of water it will afford per second for feeding 
canals, &c., it is usual to make the experiment during 
the drought of summer, when the streams are dimin- 
ished in their beds. It must be evident that this is 
the only proper time that can be taken for calculating 
the regular power afforded by a water fall. When a 
stream is measured during any stage of its floods, and 
the standard of its powder is assumed from this ad- 
measurement, disappointment will certainly follow. 
Whenever the flood- waters subside, the mill wheel 
must remain idle for want of the calculated supply of 
water. During the drought of summer, a considera- 
ble river becomes so much diminished, that it may be 
made to pass through a sluiceway, or over the edge of 
a plank, whereby the quantity of water can be very 
exactly measured. 

The rules for measuring the quantity of water thus 
discharged, through sluices under a given head, or 
over the edge of a board, or weir, with the stream 
open at the top, will be also given, that either of these 
modes of admeasurement most convenient to the en- 
gineer, may at pleasure be adopted, or all of them, to 
correct any error that might arise from taking one of 
the experiments singly. The knowledge of the velo- 
city at the bottom of a stream is of use to an engineer 
to enable him to judge of the action of a stream on 
its bed. Every kind of soil will bear a certain velo- 
city without changing the form of the channel. 

A greater velocit}^ would enable this water to tear 
it up, and a smaller velocity would permit the depos- 
ite of more movable materials from above. It appears 
from observation, that a velocity of 3 inches per sec- 



MEASUREMENT OF WATER. 81 

ond, at the bottom, will just begin to work on fine clay 
fit for pottery, and however firm and compact it may 
be, it will tear it up. Yet no beds are more stable 
than clay, when the velocities do not exceed this ; for 
the water soon takes away the impalpable particles 
of the superficial clay, leaving the particles of sand 
sticking by their lower half in the clay, which they 
now protect, making a very permanent bottom, if the 
stream does not bring down gravel or coarse sand 
which will rub ofi" this very thin crust and allow 
another layer to be worn off. Six inches per second 
will lift fine sand ; 8 inches will lift sand as coarse as 
linseed ; 12 will sweep along fine gravel ; 24 inches 
will roll along rounded pebbles, 1 inch in diameter, 
and it requires 3 feet per second, at the bottom, to 
sweep away shivered angular stones of the size of an 
egg. 

Rules for calculating or measuring the quantity of 
water flowing through sluices or apertures, in this, as 
in former instances, we must multiply the area of the 
aperture by the velocity with which the water rushes 
through it. 

The velocity of water flowing out of a horizontal 
aperture, in the bottom of a cistern, is as the square 
root of the height of the water above the aperture ; 
that is, the pressure, and consequently the depth, is as 
the square of the velocity, and the force required to 
produce a velocity in a certain quantity of matter in 
a given time, is also as that velocity ; therefore, the 
force must be as the square of the velocity. 

Hence the following Table, showing the velocity in 
feet per minute, with which water should issue from an 



82 



MEASUREMENT OF WATER. 



aperture, at any given depth beneath the surface, from 
1 inch to upwards, calculated according to the theory 
of falling bodies. 



Depth in 


Velocity per niin. 


Depth in 


Velocity per min. 


inches. 


in feet. 


inches. 


in feet 


1 


138.6 


151 


547.2 


H 


170.1 


16 


555.6 


2 


196.2 


161 


564. 


n 


219.6 


17 


572 6 


3 


240.6 


17i 


580.8 


H 


259.8 


18 


589.3 


4 


277.8 


181 


597.6 


^ 


294.6 


19 


605.4 


5 


310.3 


191 


613.2 


H 


325.8 


20 


621.1 


6 


340.2 


201 


628.8 


6i 


354. 


21 


636.6 


7 


367.4 


211 


644.4 


71 
* 2 


380.4 


22 


651.6 


8 


392.7 


221 


658.8 


84 


405. 


23 


666.1 


9 


417. 


231 


673.2 


n 


428.4 


24 


680.5 


10 


439.3 


241 


694.2 


101 


450.1 


25 


708. 


n 


460.8 


251 


721.8 


111 


471. 


26 


735. 


12 


481.2 


261 


748.2 


12i 


491.4 


27 


760.9 


13 


501. 


271 


773.4 


131 


510.6 


28 


786. 


14 


519.6 


281 


798.1 


14i 


529.2 


29 


810. 


15 


538.3 


291 


822. 






30 


834. 



CALCULATIONS OF POWER. 83 



CALCULATIONS OF POWER. 

L Required the power of a stream of water of the 
following dimensions, viz. 12 inches deep, 20 inches 
broad ; velocity 75 feet in 12 seconds, and fall 40 
feet. Ans. 23.6 

12X20 _ .^ . ^ . 

- — —=zl.66 square leet :=:area of stream. 
144 

12" :75::60" : 375. lineal feet per min.=:velocity. 

375.xl.66=622.50 cubic feet per minute. 

622.50x62,5=38906. 250==:pounds per minute. 

38906.250X40=1556250.000 momentum at a fall of 

40 feet. 

1556250.000 ^^ ^ . 

=35.4 horse power. 

44000 ^ 

3:2:: 35.4 : 23 6 effective power. 

2. Required the power of a water wheel, 16 feet 
diameter, 14 feet wide, and shrouding 14 inches deep . 

Ans. 25.4 

16x3. 1416=50. 2656=circumference of wheel. 

14x1^^16 J- square feet, area of buckets. 

60x4=240 lineal feet per min.=veloc., 240x14=: 
3360 cubic feet water, when buckets are full ; when 
half full, 1680 cubic feet. 

1680x62.5=105000.0 pounds of water per minute. 

105000.0xl6=1680000=moment. falling 16 feet. 



84 CALCULATIONS OF POWER. 



3:2:: 1680000:^^^^^^^— 25.4 horse power. 
44000 



3. Required the power of a stream of water, 12 
inches deep, 23 inches broad ; velocity 62 feet in 1 1 
seconds, and fall 32 feet. Ans. 19.9 

. =1.96 square feet :=area of stream. 

144 

ir': 62 ::60": 335.4 lineal feet per min. — velocity. 

335.4x1. 96=657. 384 cubic feet per minute. 

657. 384x62. 5=41086. 5000=avoir. lbs. per minute. 

41086.5000X32=1314768.0000 moment, at 32 ft. 

13 14768.0000 ^^Q Q horse power, then, 3:2:: 29.9: 

44000 
19.9 effective power. 

4- Required the power of an engine, the cylinder 
being 40 inches diameter, and stroke 5 feet. 



CALCULATIONS OF POWER. 85 

■ = 59.9 horse power. 

44000 ^ 

Or, 40 
40 



1600 

.7854 



6400 
* 8000 

12800 

11200 

1256.6400 
10 

12566.4000 
210 

1256640000 
251328000 

44000)2638944.0000(59.9 or say 60 horse power. 
220000 

438944 
396000 



429440 
396000 

33440 

5. What size cyhnder will the above 60 horse power 
engine require, allowing the stroke to be 6 feet ? 
44000x60=2640000 ^.o- u r i- i 

2-28^a0=-^28r^'^'^ ^^'^''=="^^""^"^^^^^^ 

6. What diameter is the cyhnder of a 60 horse en- 
gine, common pressure ? 



86 



CALCULATIONS OP 



V60X25* 



=43.7, say 43| inches diameter. 



.7854 
* 25 inches of the area of cylinder = one horse power. 



When the effective 
pressure on each 
inch of piston is 


The area equal to 
one horse power 
will be 


When the effective 
pressure on each 
inch of piston is 


The area equal to 
one horse power 
will be 


53 lbs. 


3.7 


28 lbs. 


7.14 


48 " 


4.17 


23 " 


8. 7 


43 " 


4.65 


18 " 


11.11 


38 " 


5.26 


13 •' 


15.46 


33 " 


6.06 


8 " 


25. 



CALCULATIONS OF SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &c. 

These calculations, though quite simple, are in- 
serted for the benefit of the practical man. 

The speed of the driving shafts is assumed while 
treating of the machines ; the reader can readily 
substitute any other as the case may require. 

To find the speed per minute of the upright driving 

shaft. 
Multiply the number of teeth, or cants, by the 
speed per minute of the water wheel, and divide by 
the number of teeth in the wheel on the foot of the 
upright. 

1. Suppose the number of cants to be 480, the 
speed per min. of wheel 3 turns, and the number of 
teeth in the wheel on the foot of the upright 36. 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 87 

480X3 



36 



-=40, speed per min. of upright shaft. 



To find the speed per min. of the main cross shaft. 

Multiply the number of teeth, or diameter of the 
wheel on the upright driving shaft, by its revolutions 
per min., and divide by the number of teeth or diam- 
eter of wheel on main cross shaft. 

1. Suppose the wheel on the upright shaft to con- 
tain 76 teeth, revolving 40 turns per min., as above, 
and the wheel on the main cross shaft to contain 40 
teeth ; required the speed per min. of cross shaft. 

76x40 , . ^ , r T 

.^ - =76, speed per mmute oi cross shaft. It 

will be seen that nothing is here gained. 

2. Suppose the number of teeth of the wheel on 
the upright shaft is 80, the speed of upright 40, and 
the driven wheel on cross shaft 32 ; required the speed 
per min. of cross shaft. 

80x40 _ Or thus, 80 

32 — ^^^ 40 

32)3200(100, speed per min. of 
32 cross shaft. 

00 
Showing a gain of 100 — 40=60. 

3. Suppose the wheel of 80 teeth on this shaft, 

running 100 turns per min., drives another wheel on 

second shaft of 64 teeth ; required the speed per min. 

of second cross shaft. 

80X100 , ^ ^ , . 

— ^j— =125, speed oi second cross shaft. 



88 CALCULATIONS OF 

Or, suppose the shaft running 100 turns, has upon 
it a drum of 24 inches, driving another drum of 20 
inches on second cross shaft ; required the turns per 
min. 



24x100 
20 

inches. 

Or, as 20 



120, speed required. 



turns. 


inches. 


turns. 


100 


:: 24 : 


120. 


24 







20)2400 



120 

4. Suppose the cross shaft revolves 120 turns per 

min., with a 24 inch drum ; required the diameter of 

a drum to produce 160 turns per min. 

120x24 . , 1. 

— ^-^— = 18 mches, diameter oi drum. 

5. Suppose the cross shaft revolves 120 times per 

min., with a 24 inch drum driving another shaft 200 

times per min. ; required the size of drum. 

120x24 

— ^„^ =14| mches," diameter. 
200 ^ i 

Or, 200 : 24 :: 120 : 14|. 

To find the speed per minute, of TVillow. 
1. Suppose the driving shaft revolves 200 times 
per min., with a 16 inch drum driving the beater pul- 
leys of 8 and 9 inches in diameter ; required the 
speed of the beaters. 

200 speed per min. of shaftxl6 

^ =355.5 speed of 1st. 

And, 

200 speed of shaftxl9 , . , 
Q =400, speed of 2d. 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, tC. 89 

2. Suppose the driving shaft goes 300 rev. per 
min., with a 24 inch drum, driving a Bacon Willow 
by a pulley of 12|^ inches ; required its speed. 
/300X24 14400 \ 

l-i2r''^"'25-=^^^'^^^-j 

To find the speed per min. of the Scutching and 
Spreading Machine. 

1. Suppose the driving shaft to revolve 225 turns 

per nain., upon which is a 24 inch pulley driving the 

beater pulley of 4 inches; required the speed per 

min. of beater. 

225x24 ^ . '. 

— -T =1350, speed per mm. of beater. 

To find, the draught of this Machine. 

Count the number of teeth of the wheel on the 
end of feeding roller shaft, call it the first leader, and 
also the number of teeth on the pinion which it 
drives, call this the first follower, and so on to the 
last follower on the calender roller shaft, omitting all 
intermediate wheels, then, 

product of leadersxdiameter of calender roller 

product of foUowersxfeeding roller ^^ 

draught. 

1. If the leaders be 140.20 and 18, the followers 
85.20 and 36, the diameter of calender roller 5, and 
feeding roller 2 inches ; then, 

/140x20xl8x5\ 252000 , , 

V 85X20X36X2 j= 122400 =^'^^==^^^ ^"^"§^*- 
Again, if the leaders be 136.21 and 18, the follow- 
7 



90 CALCULATIONS OP 

ers 90.21 and 40, the diameter of calender roller 4|-, 

and feeding roller 1 J inches ; then, 

/ 136x21Xl8x4n _ 231336^2^4 j^^^ 

V 90x21X40xli / ~ 113400 ^ 

Tojind the speed per min. of Main Cylinder in the 
Carding Engine. 

1. Suppose the driving shaft to revolve 120 turns 
per min., upon v^hich is a 16 inch pulley driving the 
cylinder pulleys of 15 inches; required the speed of 
cylinder. 
120 turns per min.xlO in., diam. of driving pulley_ 
15 inches, diameter of driven pulley 
128. 

Thus, 120 
16 



720 
120 



15)1920(128, sp'd per min. of main cyl'r. 
15 

42 
30 



120 
120 







Tojind the draught of this Machine. 

1. Suppose the v^heel on doffer shaft to be 28, and 
to play into another upon the side shaft of 32, and on 
the lower end of this side shaft a 20 that works into 
the wheel on feeding roller of 140, the doffer cylinder 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 



14 inches, and feeding rollers 1 J inches ; required the 
draught. 

(l^^X^^XfV74.6, draught, 
V 28X20X1* / ^ 



2 

Or, 
28 140 

20 14 



560 560 

1 

2 



Ih 140 



280 1960 

560 32 



840 3920 

5880 



840)62720(74.6=draught. 

5880 

3920 
3360 



5600 
5040 



560 

Where motion to the dofFer and feeding rollers is 
communicated by a range of wheels from the main 
drum axle, the mode of calculating the draught is 
similar — taking the drivers and driven v^^heels sep- 
arately, as above. 

When wheels of the same size or number of teeth 
occur both as leaders and followers, they are omitted 
in calculation. 



92 CALCULATIONS OP 

To find the speed per min. of the Doffing Cylinder. 

1. On the railway shaft revolving 8 times per min. 
is a pulley 9 inches in diameter, leading to another of 
3 inches in diameter ; on the side of this smaller pul- 
ley is a stud wheel of 16 teeth, working into the dof- 
fer wheel of 40 teeth ; required the speed per minute 
of dofFer. 

Multiply the speed of railway shaft by the diam- 
eter of the pulley thereon, then by the number of 
teeth in the stud wheel ; then multiply the dofFer 
wheel by the small receiving pulley, and divide the 
former by the latter ; thus, 

(^?^^?^^=2??V6.4-speedofdofFer. 
V 40x3 120/ ^ 

Or, when the dofFer is driven by a range of wheels 
from the main drum axle : multiply the number of 
teeth in the pinion on the end of main drum axle, 
and that of the small stud wheel (driving the dofFer,) 
together, then by speed per min. of main drum ; — 
this will form a dividend. Then multiply the dofFer» 
and large stud wheel together for a divisor. 

2. Suppose the pinion on main drum axle to con- 
tain 18 teeth, the small stud wheel 46, and speed of 
main drum 120 turns per min., the dofFer wheel 138, 
and the large stud wheel the same ; required the dof- 
fer speed per min. 

/ 18X46X120 \ 3 3^ rev. per min. of doffer. 
\ 138x1382/ 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 93 

Or, 



138 
138 


18 
46 


1104 
414 
138 

19044 


108 

72 

828 
120 




19044)99360(5. 
95220 




41400 

38088 




33120 
19044 



14076 

To find the speed per min. of the Feeding Rollers, 
1. The wheel on the end of dofFer shaft is 28, re- 
volving 6.4 times per min., and drives another on 
upper end of the side shaft of 32 teeth ; on the lower 
end of this shaft is a 20 working into a 140 on the 
end of feeding rollers ; required the speed per min. 
of feeding rollers. 

Multiply speed of dofFer 6.4 by its driving wheel, 
then by the 20 on the lower end of side shaft for a 
dividend ; thenxthe 32 and 140 for a divisor ; thus, 

/ 6.4x28x20 \ Q^^ rev. per min. of feed rollers. • 
\ 32X140 / 
Or, as 

teeth, turns, teeth, turns. teeth, turns, teeth, turns. 

32 : 6.4 :: 28 : 5.6 then, as 140 : 5.6 :: 20 : .80 
Or, when the rollers are driven by a range of wheels 
from the main drum ; multiply the number of teeth 
in the driving wheels together, and this by the turns 



94 



CALCULATIONS OP 



of main drum per min. : then multiply the driven 
wheels together for a divisor. 

2. Suppose the drivers to be 18, 16 and 16, and 
speed per min, of main drum 115 turns, the driven 
vs^heels 32, 140 and 140 ; required the speed per min. 
of feeding rollers ? 
Thus, 

/ 18X16X16X115 \ ^ ^ 
\ 32X140X140 / 



.84. 



Or, 

"Wheel on main axle 18 

Second driver, . 16 

Third driver, . . 16 

R-ev. per min. of main drum. 
Wheel on main drum axle. 



Second driviiig vi^heel. 



First driven wheel, . 32 

Second do. do. . " 140 

Third do. do. . 140 

Teeth in 1st wheel, 32 



115 

18 

920 
115 

2070 
16 

33120 
16 



do. 



do. 



2d do. 140 



3d do. 



1280 
32 

4480 
140 

179200 
4480 

627200 



627200)529920(0.84+rev. per minute. 
5017600 

2816000 
2508800 



307200 



To find the revolutions of the Main Cylinder for 
one of the Doffing Cylinder. 

1. On the main drum axle, is a pinion of 18 teeth, 
driving a large stud wheel of 140 teeth, upon the side 
of this last wheel is a 40 driving the doffer wheel of 
140 teeth; required the proportion. 

Multiply the 18 and 40 together for a divisor, and 
the 140 stud, and 140 doffer wheel for a dividend. 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 



95 



First driver. 


. 18 


First driven, 


140 


Second do. 


40 


Second do. 


. 140 




720 J 




720)19600(27.2 pro 
1440 

5200 
5040 




1600 
1440 



160 

The revolutions of the main drum for one of the 
doffer, are generally from 14 to 34, varying according 
to the quality of stock, and work required. 

To find the revolutions of the Main Cylinder for one 
of the Feeding Rollers. 

Begin at the pinion on the main drum axle and 
trace out all the driving and driven wheels to the 
feeding rollers. Multiply the former together for a 
divisor, and the latter for a dividend. 

1. Suppose the drivers are 18, 16 and 16 ; and the 
driven wheels 28, 140 and 140 ; required the pro- 
portion. 



First driver. 


. 18 






Second do. . 


. 16 








288 


First driven. 


.28 . 


Third do. 


. 16 


Second do. . 


140 




1728 

288 


Third do. 


3920 
140 




4608 




4608)548800(119.09 pro. 
4608 



8800 
4608 

41920 
41472 



44800 
41472 



3328 



96 CALCULATIONS OF 

Most cylinders revolve considerably slower for one 
turn of the roll. This is only intended to show the 
mode of ascertaining the relative speed. 

To find the length of the card-slivevy or end delivered 
per min.from the Carding Engine. 

Multiply the circumference of the doffer cyhnder, 
by the number of revolutions it makes per min. 

Or, where there is a drawing head or calender 
roller through which the end passes ; trace the drivers 
from the main drum axle to the calender rollers, and 
multiply their product by the revolutions of the main 
cylinder ; multiply the driven wheels together and 
divide the result of the former operation. 

1. Suppose the drivers to be 18 and 44, and the 
driven wheels 140 and 20, the speed per min. of cyl- 
inder 120 turns ; required the length delivered per 
min. 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 



97 



Speed of main drnm. 



120 

18 



960 
120 

2160 
44 

8640 
8640 



140 

20 

2800=divisor. 



2800)95040(33.94 rev. per min. 
8400 of cal'r rollers. 

11040 
8400 



26400 
25200 

12000 
11200 



800 

This operation gives the revolutions per min. of 
the calender rollers, which multiplied by the circum- 
ference of the delivering ball shows the length of the 
sliver. Allow the diameter of the ball to be 2f in. ; 
what is the length in inches produced per min. ? 

2f inchesx3.1416 the circumference of one inch,x 
33.94 the rev. per min. of calender rollers=293.221= 
length produced per min. 



98 CALCULATIONS OF 

To find in what proportion a card should furnish the 
spinning with sufficient preparation in changing 
from one number to another. 

1. Suppose a pair of mules (or any number of spin- 
dles) are spinning 75's weft, with 80 turns in a cer- 
tain length of lap, weighing 8|- lbs., and it is required 
to change the yarn to 85's warp with 100 turns. What 
is the weight of lap of the same length ? 

Now, 85's twist requires a lighter lap than 75's 
weft, and 100 turns require a lighter lap than 80 turns: 
then we multiply the 100 by 85's for a divisor, and the 
80 turns by 75's, then by 8^ pounds, the weight of the 
lap, for a dividend, 
thus: 100X85.= 8500= divisor, 

and 80x75= 6000x8^= 5 1 000=dividend^8500= 6 
pounds=weight of lap. 

To find the speed of the Drawing Frame Cylinder. 

1. Suppose the main shaft revolves 95 times per 
minute, with a 16 inch pulley driving a 14 on the 
cross shaft, which drives the cylinder pulley of 10 
inches : required the speed per minute of shaft. 



X95xl6^14=: 108=the speed per min. of cross-shaft 
Xl4-f-10=151.2=speed per min. of cylinder shaft. 

Or, X the driving drums 16 and 14x95 speed per 
min. of main shaft and-^10xl4 the driven pulleys,= 
speed per min. of cylinder shaft. 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 99 

To find the speed per minute of the Front Roller in 
the Drawing Frame. 

1. Suppose the cross shaft revolves 108 turns per 
min. with a 14 inch drum driving the cylinder shaft 
by a pulley of 10 inches, which drives the front roll- 
ers by a pulley of 7 inches : required the front roller 
speed. 

Xl08xl4-^10=152=speed of cylinder shaft, x10-h7 
=217=front roller speed per minute. 

Or, where there is a stud gear on side belt pulleys, 
working into a wheel or front roller, thus : 

2. Suppose the stud gear wheel to contain 74 teeth, 
the front roller wheel 56, and the cylinder and bell pul- 
leys 8 and 7 inches. 

Multiply 152, speed per min. of cylinderx8=1216-l- 
7=174,=speed of bell pulleysx74=12876-f-56=: 229.9 
say 230 speed of front rollers, per min. 

Or, (152X74X8-^56X7)=229.9. 

To find the draught of the Drawing Frame. 

Begin at the wheel on the back roller of the back 
beam, and trace out all the leaders and followers to 
the wheel on the delivering shaft ; multiply the num- 
ber of teeth in all the leaders together, and the product 
by the diameter of the delivering roller on the deliv- 
ering shaft ; then in the same way, multiply the num- 
ber of teeth in all the followers together, and the pro- 
duct by the diameter of the back roller. 

The former divided by the latter is the draught of 
the drawing frame. 



100 



CALCULATIONS OF 



1. Suppose the wheel on the back roller of the back 
beam is 40,* the wheel on front roller of back beam 
16,t the wheel on front roller of back beam 40,* the 
wheel on back roller of front beam 38,t the wheel on 
back roller of front beam 38,* the wheel on the front 
roller of front beam 16,t the wheel on front roller of 
front beam 36,* the wheel on delivering roller 74t 
teeth, the diameter of delivering roller 2 inches,* and 
that of the back roller 1 inch,f in diam.; required the 



draught. 



*Leaders. 
Back roller, back beam, 40 teeth. 
Front *' " 40 " 

Back " front beam, 38§ " 
Front " " 36 " 

Diam. ofdelivering ball, 2 inches. 

40 
40 

1600 
36 

9600 
4800 



^[ Followers. 
Front roller, back beam, 16 teeth. 



Back " front *' 
Front " " " 

Wheel on deliv. shaft, 
Diam. of back roller. 



57600 
2 



18944)115200(6.08 Draught of the 
113664 Drawing Frame. 

153600 
151552 



38§ " 
16 " 
74 « 
1 inch. 

16 
16 



96 
16 



256 
74 

1024 

1792 

18944 



2048 



§ These occur both as driver and driven, and for this reason are 
omitted in the operation. 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 101 

To find the revolutions per minute, of the Bach Roller 
in the Drawing Frame. 

Begin at the pinion on the front roller of front beam 
and trace out all the leaders and followers to the 
wheel on the back roller of the back beam ; multiply 
the leaders together and their sum by the rev. per 
min. of the front roller for a dividend : then multiply 
the followers together for a divisor. 

1. Suppose the wheel on front roller of front beam 
to contain 17 teeth, the wheel on back roller of front 
beam 40, the wheel on back roller of front beam 40, 
the wheel on front roller of back beam 42, the wheel 
on front roller of back beam 17, and the wheel on 
back roller of back beam 44 teeth ; the revolutions per 
minute of front roller 217 : required the revolutions 
per minute of back roller. 



102 



CALCULATIONS OF 



Leaders. 
Pinion on the front roller of front 

beam, . . 17 teeth. 
Wheelonbackrol. ofdo. 40 " * 
Pinion on front roller of back 

beam, . . 17 teeth. 
Revolutions of front rollers per 

minute, . . . 217 
Pinion on frt. rol. frt. beam, 17 



1519 
217 

3689 
Pinion on frt. rol. back do. 17 



2582^ 
3689 



Followers. 
"Wheel on back roller of front 

beam, . . 40 teeth. 
Wheel on front roller of back 

beam, . . 42 teeth. 
Wheel on back rol. ofdo. 44 " 
Wheel on front roller of back 

beam, ... 42 
Wheel on back rol. of do. 44 

168 
168 



1848 



1848)62713(33.93 revolutions of back rollers 
5544 per minute. 

7273 
5544 



17290 
16632 



6580 
5544 

1086 

To find how many Carding Engines are necessary 
to supply the Drawing Frame. 

Multiply the inches taken in by the back rollers per 
min. by the number of slivers or ends put up, and di- 
vide the product by the inches delivered by each card 
per minute. 

Thus : rev. per min. of back rollers 33.93x3.1416, 
the circumference of roll. xl2=no. of ends put up, 
=1291.13=a dividend, this-i-293=the length produced 



* Driver and Driven. 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 103 

per min. of card, =4.4 or about 4^ cards to the draw- 
ing frame. This number, however, in practice would 
not be quite sufficient, owing to stoppages, &c. 

To find the size of end after going through a Draw- 
ing Frarm. 

Multiply the doublings at each box one into another 
for a divisor, and the draught of each box one into 
another for a dividend, the product will be the size of 
hank. 

1. Suppose the card-sliver to be Jth of a hank, and 
goes through 3 boxes of drawing, and puts up 6 ends 
at each box, and the draught of the boxes to be 4.75. 
Required the size, or count. 

1st box 6 endsx4=24 4.75 or 4|- 
6 4 




144 3d box. 



16416 16416(1 or i of a hank. 

Consequently, nothing is here gained but doubling. 



104 CALCULATIONS OP 

To find the number or counts when the last box draw- 
ing has gone through a coarse stubbing machine. 

1 . Suppose the last box drawing by J- of a hank as 
above, and go up single at the slubbing machine, with 
a 21 pinion wheel on front roller, a 56 top carrier, a 
42 back roller wheel, and a 28 change wheel : Re- 
quired the counts. 

Multiply the 21 pinion wheel by the 28 change 
wheel for a divisor ; then multiply the 56 top carrier 
by the 42 back roller wheel for a dividend. 



Thus : 21 Pinion Wheel. 
28 Change " 



168 
42 

588 



56 Top Carrier. 
43 Back roll, wheel. 



112 
224 



2352(4 dra'htsor 1 hank. 
2352 



To find the change wheel when the last box drawing 
has gone through a slubbing machine. 

1. Suppose the last box of drawing be as above, \ 
of a hank, and goes up single to the slubbing machine 
with a 21 pinion wheel on front roller, and the top 
carrier 56, and the back roller wheel 42 teeth, and the 
draught or extension of sliver 4 : required the change 
wheel. 

Multiply the 21 on front roller by the draught 4 for 
a divisor, and then the top carrier 56 by the back 
roller wheel 42 for a dividend. 



i 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 105 

Thus : 21 Pinion. Ii 56 Top carrier. 

4 Drauglit. 42 Back Roller wheel. 

84 1 112 

224 



84)2352 (28= change wheel. 
168 

672 
672 

To find the counts after going through a roving hilly. 

1. Suppose a bobbin of 1 hank be drawn into a 
roving and put up two ends, with a 20 pinion wheel 
and an 80 top carrier, and a 60 back roller wheel and 
a 30 change wheel : required the counts. Multiply 
20 pinion wheel X 2 ends put up X 30 change wheel for 
a divisor: then x the 80 top carrier by the 60 back 
roller wheel for a dividend. 

Thus: 20X2X30=1200, and 80x60=4800-1200= 
4=:no. hanks. 

To find the change or altering wheel 
1. Suppose a bobbin df 1 hank be drawn into 4, 
and go up double to the billy, or stretcher, with a 20 
pinion and an 80 top carrier, and a 60 back roller 
wheel : required the change wheel ? 

Multiply 20 pinion X 2 ends put up, = 40x4 hank 
roving,= 160 =a divisor ; and X 80 top carrier X 60 
back roller wheel, = 4300-160 = 30= the change 
wheel required. 

8 



106 CALCULATIONS OF 

To find the revolutions per minute of front rollers in 

fly frame. 

Multiply the number of teeth in the pinion wheel 
on the frame shaft by the revolutions per minute of 
the shaft, and divide this product by the number of 
teeth in wheel on front roller. 

1. Suppose the pinion on frame shaft to contain 30 
teeth, the revolutions per minute of frame shaft 210, 
and the wheel on front roller 54 teeth : required the 
revolutions per minute of front rollers. 
No. teeth in pinion wheel, 30 
Rev. pr min. of frame shft. 210 

No. t'th in fr. rol. wh'l. 54)6300(116.66 rev. per min. 

54 

90 
54 



360 
324 

360 
324 

• 360 
324 

36 

To find the revolutions of the spindle per minute. 

Multiply the speed per minute of frame shaft by the 
diameter of the twist pulley, and divide the product 
by the diameter of the spindle wharve, or pulley. 

1. Suppose the speed per minute of frame shaft is 
210, the diameter of twist pulley 9, and that of the 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 107 

wharve, or pulley, 3 inches : required the speed per 
minute of spindle. 

Rev. per min. of frame shaft, 210 

Diameter of twist pulley, 9 

Diameter of spindle pulley, 3) 1890 

630 speed of spindle. 

It is obvious that when gears are employed, the 
same rule is to be observed, — substituting the number 
of teeth, in the room of inches in diameter. Most of 
this kind of machines are now driven by wheel- work. 
To find the twists per inch on the roving in the Fly 

Frame. 

Multiply the circumference of the front roller by its 
revolutions per minute ; this will give the length in 
inches produced per minute : then divide the revolu- 
tions per minute of the spindle by this product. 

1. Suppose the turns per minute of front roller to 
be 116.66, the circumference 3.80 inches, and the 
revolutions per minute of spindle, 630 : required the 
twist per inch. 

Rev. of front roll, per min. 116.66 

Circum. of front roller, 3.80 

933280 
34998 



443.3080=a divisor. 
443.31)630 (1.42 twists per inch. 
443.31 

186690 
177324 



93660 

88662 

4998 



108 CALCULATIONS OF 

To find the speed per minute of the rim, orfiy, on the 

mule jenny. 

Multiply the diameters of the driving drums and 
pulleys together, and their product by the speed per 
minute of driving shaft for a dividend : then multiply 
the diameters of the driven drums and pulleys for a 
divisor. 

1. Suppose the driving drums are 18 and 16, the 
speed per minute of driving shaft 100, and the driven 
drums 16 and 14 inches : required the speed per min. 
of the fly. 



Speed of driving shaft, 100 I 
First driver, 18 I 

1800 j 
Second driver, 16*1 



First driven, 16* 
Second do. 14 



224=divisor. 



224)28800(128.5 speed per min. of fly. 

224 

640 

448 



1920 
1792 



1280 
1120 

1600 
1568 

32 



* These wheels may be omitted and the same result is found. 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 109 

To find the revolutions per?mnute of the front rollers 
in the mule jenny. 

Multiply the driving wheels together, and their pro- 
duct by the speed per minute of the rim, or fly, for a 
dividend ; then multiply the driver wheels together 
for a divisor. 

1. Suppose the driving wheels to be 84 and 40, the 
speed of rim 128, and the driven wheels 80 and 72 
teeth : required the turns per minute. 



First driver on axle of rim, 84 teeth. 
Second do. on lower end of 

diagonal shaft, . 40 " 

3360 
Rev. per nain, of rim, 128 



First driven on upper 

end of diag. shaft, 80 te'h. 
Second do. on frt. rol. 72 " 

160 
560 



26880 5760 

6720 
3360 



5760)430080(74.66 front roller speed. 
40320 



26880 
23040 



38400 
34560 

38400 
34560 

3840 



To find the revolutions per minute of the spindles in the 

mule jenny. 

Multiply the drawing wheels and pulleys from the 
rim to drum band pulley, and their product by rev. 
per min. of rim for a dividend ; then in the same way 
multiply all the driven wheels and pulleys for a 
divisor. 



110 CALCULATIONS OF 

1. Suppose the diameter of rim is 38 inches, the 
large twist pulley 16 inches, the small twist pulley 10 
inches, the rim of drum band 9 J inches, the drum band 
pulley 10 inches, the wharve on spindle Jths of an 
inch in diameter, and the rev. per min. of rim 128 : 
required rev. per min. of spindles. 

Thus : 38xl0xl0xl28=486400=dividend : and 
16x9|xi=114=divisor: then 486400^114=4267 
nearly= speed of spindles. 

To find the twists per inch on yarn of mule jenny. 

Multiply the turns per minute of front roller by its 
circumference, and divide the turns per minute of the 
spindles by this product. 

1. Suppose the turns per minute of front roller are 
74.66, the circumference 3.80 and the rev. per min. 
of spindle 4267 : required the twists per inch. 

Rev. per min. of fr't roL, 74.66 
Circumference of " p 3.80 

597280 

22398 



283.7080)4267. sp. prm. of s.(15.04 ts. pr in. 

283.71 



142990 
141855 

113500 

113484 



16 



To find the draught of the mule jenny. 

Multiply the change or altering wheel by the pin- 
ion on front roller, and this by diam. of back roller for 
a divisor ; then multiply the lop carrier by the back 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 



Ill 



roller wheel, and this by diam. of front roller for a 
dividend. 

1. Suppose the pinion on coupling shaft is 21, the 
top carrier 116, change wheel 36, back roller wheel 
60, the diam. of back roller f of an inch, and the front 
roller f : required the draught. 



Change wheel, 36 teeth. 
Pinion " 21 

36 

72 



756 
Diam. back rol. f 

6048 



Top carrier wheel, 116 teeth. 
Back roller " 60 " 

6960 
Diam. of front rol. f 



6048)62640(10. 35==draught. 
6048 

21600 
18144 



34560 
30240 

4320 



To find the counts after going through the 
mule jenny. 

Multiply the pinion wheel by the change wheel and 
this product by the length of yarn turned out from 
the front roller for a divisor ; then multiply the top 
carrier by the back roller wheel, then by the length 
of stretch put up, and this by the number of hanks rov- 
ing for a dividend. 

1. Suppose a roving of 4 hanks be drawn into yarn 
with a 21 pinion wheel, a 116 top carrier, a 60 back 
roller wheel, a 36 change wheel, the length of the 
stretch put up 58 inches, and the length of yarn 
turned out from the rollers 50 inches : required the 
number of hanks. 



112 



CALCULATIONS OF 



Pinion wheel, 21 teeth. Top carrier. 



Chansre do. 36 do. 



126 
63 



756 
Len'h tr'd out, 50 in. 



37800 



Back rol. wheel, . 
Leufj-thof stretch. 



116 teeth. 
60 do. 



6960 
5S in. 



No. of roving. 



556S0 
34800 

403680 
4 



37800)1614720(42.71. ^ws. 
151200 



102720 
75600 



271200 
264600 

66000 
37800 

28200 



To find the number of hanhs of roving from the 

number of hanks of the mule yarn. 
Multiply the number of hanks of yarn by the gain 
of carriage, and divide this by the number of inches 
put up ; this gives the alteration of hanks by the 
gaining of the carriage ; subtract this number from 
the number of hanks mule yarn, and multiply the 
product by the pinion and change wheels for a divi- 
dend ; then multiply the top carrier by the back 
roller wheel for a divisor. 

1. Suppose the number of yarn to be 42.71, the 
gaining of carriage 8 inches, the number of inches 
put up 58, the pinion wheel 21, the change wheel 36 
teeth, the top carrier 1 1 6, and back roller wheel 60 
teeth : required the hanks roving. 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 



iia 



Top carrier, 
Back Roller, 



116 teeth. 
60 do. 



6960 



No. of yarn, 

Gain of Carriage, 

Inches put up, 
42.71 

5.89 

36.82 
21 



42.71 



8 in. 



58)341.68(5.89-1- 
290 

516 
464 

528 
522 



3682 
7364 

773.22 
36 

463932 
231966 

6960)27835.92(4 hanks roving. 
27840 



To find a wheel to put on the bottom of the diagonal 
shaft, to make the front rollers turn out a certain 
length, or number of inches in a certain number 
of revolutions. 

1. Suppose the rollers turn out 54 inches in 57 
turns, with a 56 wheel on rim shaft, a 54 on top of 
diagonal shaft, a 100 on coupling shaft, and the cir- 
cumference of front roller 3.14 inches ; required the 
wheel on bottom of diagonal shaft. 

Multiply the wheel on the rim shaft by the turns, 
and the circumference of the front roller, for a divi- 
sor ; then multiply the wheel on top of diagonal shaft, 
by the inches turned out, then by the wheel on coup- 
hng shaft for a dividend. 



114 



CALCULATIONS OF 



Wheel on rim 

shaft, . 56 teeth. 
No. of turns, 57 

392 
280 



Cir. frt. rol. 



3192 
3.14 



12768 
3192 
9576 

10022.88 



Wheel on top diagonal 

shaft, 
Inches turned out, . 



54 teeth. 
54 



216 
270 



2916 
Wheel on coupling shaft, 100 

10022.88)291600.00(294- 
2004576 

9114240 
9020592 



93648 



It will be seen that the decimal of the circumfer- 
ence of front roll, has made the true result vary 
somewhat. The proper wheel is 30 teeth. 

To find the change wheel in altering from one number 
to another, without changing the roving. 

1. Suppose the mule jenny, (or throstle frame,) 
be spinning 30 hanks in the pound, with a 28 change 
wheel, and it is required to spin 40 hanks in the 
pound ; required the change wheel. 

Now, a little reflection will convince us that the 
latter number will require a less change wheel, than 
the former ; therefore, we multiply the 30 hanks and 
28 change wheel together, for a dividend, and divide 
the result by the number of hanks required. Thus, 
30x28-^40=21 -change wh'l. Or, as 40 : 28 ;: 30 : 21. 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 115 

To find the change wheel in altering from one number 
to another when the change wheel and roving 
7'equire to he altered. 

1. Suppose you are spinning 30's with a 4 hank 
roving, and a 26 change wheel, and it is required to 
change to 36's with 5 hank roving : required the 
change wheel. 

Multiply the 36's by the 4 hank roving for a di- 
visor ; then multiply the 30's by the 5 hank roving, 
and this product by the 26 change wheel for a divi- 
dend. 

36 and 4 oq 

30 and 5 and 26. | 5 



150 
26 

900 
300 

4X36=144)3900(27. Ans, 

288 

1020 
1008 



12 

To find the diameter of the mendoza pulley to move 
the carriage uniformly with the surface speed, or 
delivery of front roller. 

Multiply the diameter of the front roller by the 
teeth in the mendoza wheel, and divide this result by 
the teeth in pinion on the front roller that drives the 
mendoza wheel. Subtract from this product the 



116 CALCULATIONS OF 

diameter of the mendoza band, and the result is the 
diameter of a pulley that will move the carriage out 
as fast as the yarn is delivered by the front rollers. 

1 . Suppose the number of teeth of mendoza wheel 
to be 118, the diameter of front roller 1-g- inches, the 
pinion on front roller 21 teeth, and the diameter of 
band f of an inch : required the diameter of pulley. 

thus : I . ^ — ^-l=5.695=the diam. of pulley to 

V 21 8/ ^ -^ 

move the carriage as fast as the delivery of yarn. 

2. Suppose the length of stretch is 56 inches, the 
gain upon the same 6 inches ; required the pulley to 
move the carriage with a gain of 6 inches on the 
stretch. 

thus : 56x5.695 the diam. of pulley to move the car- 
riage as fast as the delivery of yarn=3 18.920^-56 — 6, 
gain of carriage==6.374, or say 6f inches diameter 
of pulley required. ' 

3. Suppose the length of stretch is 58 inches with 
a gain of 7^ inches ; required the pulley. 

thus : /5QX5^^^L6.54 in. diameter. 
\ 58— 7i / 

To find a wheel to put on the middle roller, for the 
middle roller to draw from the hack roller 6 into 7, 
and 6 into 8. 

1. Suppose the diam. of the back roller is | and the 
diam. of the middle roller is -J of an inch, and back 
roller wheel 24 teeth ; required the middle roller 

wheel. 

(24x7=168-^8=21x6=126-^7)=18=wheel required. 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 



117 



2. Suppose the back roller wheel is 32, the diame- 
ters of the back and middle rollers |- and J inch, and 
you wish to draw the middle in the proportion of 6 to 8. 
thus : (32x7-224-^8-28x6=168-^8)=21=wheelrequ'd. 

To find the number of stretches upon a cop. 

1. Suppose a cop runs 10 leas with 80 turns of the 
reel in one lea, and 54 inches in one turn, and the 
number of inches the mule puts up is 58 ; required 
the stretches. 

10 leas X 80 turns X 54 inches and -f- 58 inches put 
up=the number of stretches. 
thus: 10x80=800x54=432000-^58=74411 stretches- 

To find the draught of the Spinning Frame. 
1. Suppose the drivers are 26 and 30, the driven 
wheels 116 and 56, the back roll J, and the front roll 
I of an inch in diameter : required the draught. 



1st driver, 26 teeth. 


1st driven wheel 116 


2d do. 30 


2d do. do. 56 


780 
diam. back rol., ^ 


696 

580 


5460 


6496 
diam. frt. rol., | 




5460)58464(10.52 
5460 




28640 
27300 




13400 
10920 



2480 



118 CALCULATIONS OF 

The twist, produce, &c. of this machine, are found 
in the same way as the mule, and one acquainted 
with the preceding operations will readily perform 
others of a similar nature. 

To find in tvhat proportion to put twist in yarn per 
inch, in changing from one number to another. 

A good rule is to add 2j- revolutions of the spindle 
for every 10 hanks. For instance : suppose you are 
spinning 30's twist with 20 revolutions of the spindle 
per inch, and it is required to change to 45 twist ; 
required the revolutions of spindle per inch. 

Now, 45's — 30's=15 hanks finer than present spin- 
ningx2|=3.75 and 3.75-4-20-23.75 or 23f twist per 
inch of number 45 twist. 

Suppose you are spinning 40's weft with 16 J rev. 
of the spindle per inch, and it is required to change 
to 50's weft ; required the rev. of spindle per inch. 
Thus : 50 — 40=10 hanks finer than you are spinning, 
X2j=2.5-j- 16.5=1 9 twist per inch of number 50. 

The number of twists given to the yarn varies 
with the fineness of the fibres and yarn, and whether 
or not it be required for warp or weft. A good prac- 
tical rule for finding the twists per inch of any num- 
ber of yarn, is the following, viz. : V number of yarn x 
for the twists per inch of warp, and Vnumber of yarn 
3.75x3.25 for weft yarn. 

Thus : for number 25 warp yarn, we have V25=5x 
3.75=18.75 twists per inch : for 36 weft, V36=6x3.25= 
19.50 twists per inch of 36 weft. 



I 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 119 

Computation of the length and fineness of cotton 

yarn. 

Yards. Threads. 
1^ = 1 Skeins. 
120 = 80 = 1 Hanks. 
840 = 560 = 7 = 1 Spindle. 
15120 =10080 = 126 = 18 = 1 

Thus : number 20 yarn contains 20 hanks, or 20x 
840 yards ==16,800 yards in one pound : number 35 
contains 35x840 yards=:29,400 yards in one pound : 
and number 11 yarn contains 11x840 yards ==9,240 
yards in one pound, &c. 

When we wish to determine the fineness of yarn, 
we take a few cops or bobbins and reel them, and 
find their weight, then say as the weight of cops or 
bobbins : 16, the number oz. in the pound :: 18, the 
number of hanks in spindle : weight or number of the 
yarn. 

Suppose the weight of spindle to be 5 ounces, then, 
5 : 16 :: 18 : 57f, number of yarn. 

Again : suppose the weight of spindle to be 8 
ounces, then, 8 : 16 :: 18 : 36, number of yarn. 
2SR 
^""^ weight of spindles m oz.= ^^' ^^ y^^^' 

' "no. of yarn ""^^^g^t of spindle in ounces. 

Computation of the length and fineness of woolen 

yarn. 
Yards. Knots. 

80 = 1 Skeins. 

320 = 4=1 Run. 

1600 = 20 = 5 = 1 



120 CALCULATIONS OF 

To find the speed j^er minute of the power loom. 

Multiply the diameter of drum Or pulley on driving 
shaft by its revolutions per minute, and divide the 
product by the diameter of the puUies on loom shaft. 

1. Suppose the diameter of drum on driving shaft 
is 16 inches, the revolutions per minute of shaft 100, 
and the loom belt pulleys 14 inches ; required the 
speed per minute of loom. 

thus: 16x100=1600-^14=114/4. 

inch. inch. rev. rev. 

Or, as 14 : 16 :: 100 : 114/-: 

2. And, 100 revolutions per minute of driving 
shaftxl6 inches driving pulley h-1 4 inches loom pul- 
leys =125| revolutions of loom shaft. 

3. Suppose the wheel on end of loom shaft to be 
56, driving the cam shaft by a wheel of 112: re- 
quired the turns of cam shaft. 

(X114, rev. of loom shaft x56 =6384-^1 12)= 57 turns 



of cam shaft. Or, (114-^(1 12-^56)= 57. 

Suppose the loom makes 120 pecks per min.= a 
single peck in half a second. Hence the loom shaft 
makes a turn in half a second, or two turns in one 
second; .and the cam shaft makes a turn in one 
second ; now this cam shaft must make -^-^ of a 
revolution to open the shades sufficiently : this 
movement will require /g of a second : it remains 
open \ or y^o of a second and requires ^-^ of a sec- 
ond to return : so we perceive that ^ or y\ of a 
second elapse between the time when the warp begins 
to open, and the time of closing, leaving ^ or ^\ of a 
second, as the time it remains open. The shuttle is 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 121 

thrown at the time when the tappet-pin or roller 
strikes the treadle underneath, &c., &c. 

To find the weight of a Warp. 

Multiply the length by number of beers, then by 
number of ends in a beer:=the number of yards ; 
then divide the number of yards by 840= number 
of hanks ; then-j-by the number of yarn and it will 
give the number of pounds required. 

1. Suppose a warp to contain 18 cuts of 30 yards 
each, with 35 beers, and 60 ends in each beer and the 
number of yarn 28's twist ; required the weight of 
warp. 

Ans. 48 lbs. 3 oz. 12 drs. 
18 cutsX30yds.= 540 
No. of beers 35 

2700 
1620 



18900 

No. of ends in beer, 60 h'ks. lbs. oz. drs. 

No yds. in hank 840) 1 134000() 1350(48— 3— 12. 

840 112 

2940 230 

2520 224 



4200 6 

4200 16 

96(3 

84 

12 



122 CALCULATIONS OP 

To find the weight of Weft to fill this Warp, 

Multiply the length by the breadth, then by num- 
ber of pecks per inch=the number of yards ; then 
divide this by 840= the number of hanks ; then divide 
by number of yarn=the weight. 

Suppose the breadth to be 28 inches, the number 
of pecks per inch 60, and the number of weft or 
filling 30 ; required the weight ? 

Ans. 36 lbs. 

Length of warp, 540 
Breadth do. 28 

4320 
1080 



15120 
No. pecks per inch, 60 j^'j^g 

/OU 



840)907200f) 1080(36 pounds. 
840 90 

6720 180 
6720 180 





2. Suppose the length of a warp be 500 yards, the 
breadth 36 inches, the number of pecks per inch 56, 
and number of weft 17 ; required the weight of weft 
to fill this length of warp. 

Ans. 70 lbs. 9 oz. 7 drs. 



SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 123 

Length of warp, 500 
Breadth do. 36 

18000 
Pecks per inch, 56 

108000 

9QQQQ h'ks. lbs. oz. drs. 
Yds. in h'k,840)l008000(^^)1200(70— 9— 7. 
840 119 



1680 10 
1680 16 

00 160(9 
153 



124 



VARIOUS TABLES, &C. 



VARIOUS TABLES, &c. 



TABLE A. 

Showing the relative power of Overshot Wheels, Steam En- 
gines, Horses, Men, and Windmills of different kinds, 
by Fenwick. 



l-«^- . 


« oT 


C A 


s s >^ 


c» 


c _c 


c t;^ 


X 


ti, <i> . 


vera 
10 f 

nute, 


5 c 
.s '1 


— . G 

-§ a 


(N .E D. 


i-H 
60 


.^i 




C 
O . 

cc a> 


« 5^ S 

CO — _, 


»-* — *" 


0? 


c c3 


1— 1 > CO 


C 


ce '^ 


a — 


(U 03 


CD .15 TO 


qj CD £ 
t3 CD *" 

§ '^ ^ 


a> 

.5 ^ 


— ID 
O to 

a; T3 S 


b£0 ii 

•S E-g 


3 
o 








■g - ^ 

-• CD -^ 


S ^ > 


>. -tiJ 


.C OJ — 


O K <^ 


>, 


=) c 


^ O 




? S O 


3. of Ale gal 
on oversho 
diameter, e 


O CO 
C C (D 
OJ C O 

■>^ — c 
S S -5 
S c c 


« > o 
£S.S 


i/j rt ti 
d 0-5 


s « 

° 1 


Q g 
^ S 

aj :-' . 
.=! OJ CD 




i<5 to 


> ^ > 
5 O cS 

^ '^ • 
O ai 

■^ *j XI 
■^ O) O 


iz; 


O 


Q 


7^ 


^ 


Pi 


Pi 


P5 


ffi 


230 


8. 


6.12 


1 


5 


21.24 


17.89 


'15.65 


13 


390 


9.5 


7.8 


2 


10 


30.04 


25.30 


22.13 


26 


528 


10.5 


8.2 


3 


15 


36.80 


30.98 


27.11 


39 


660 


11.5 


8.8 


4 


20 


42.48 


35.78 


31.30 


52 


720 


12.5 


9.35 


5 


25 


47.50 


40.00 


35.00 


65 


970 


14. 


10.55 


6 


30 


52.03 


43.82 


38.34 


78 


1170 


15.4 


11.75 


7 


35 


56.90 


47.33 


41.41 


90 


1350 


16.8 


12.8 


8 


40 


60.09 


50.60 


44.27 


104 


1455 


17.3 


13.6 


9 


45 


63.73 


53.66 


46.96 


117 


1584 


18.5 


14.2 


10 


50 , 


67.17 


56.57 


49.50 


130 


1740 


19.4 


14.8 


11 


55 


70.46 


59.33 


51.91 


143 


1900 


20.2 


15.2 


12 


60 


73.59 


61.97 


54.22 


156 


2100 


21. 


16.2 


13 


65 


76.59 


64.5 


56.43 


169 


2300 


22. 


17. 


14 


70 


79.49 


66.94 


58.57 


182 


2500 


23.1 


17.8 


15 


75 


82.27 


69.28 


60.62 


195 


2686 


23.9 


18.3 


16 


80 


84.97 


71.55 


62.61 


208 


2870 


24.7 


19. 


17 


85 


87.01 


73.32 


64.16 


221 


3055 


25.5 


19.6 


18 


90 


90.13 


75.90 


67.41 


234 


3240 


26.2 


20.1 


19 


95 


92.60 


77.98 


68.23 


247 


3420 


27. 


20.7 


20 


100 


95.00 


80.00 


70.00 


260 


3750 


28.5 


22.2 


22 


110 


99.64 


83.90 


73.42 


286 


4000 


29.8 


23. 


24 


120 


104.06 


87.63 


76.88 


312 


4460 


31.1 


23.9 


26 


130 


108.32 


91.22 


79.81 


388 


4850 


32.4 


24.7 


28 


140 


112.20 


94.66 


82.82 


364 


5250 


33.6 


25.5 


30 


150 


116.35 


97.98 


85.73 


396 



VARIOUS TABLES, &C. 



125 



TABLE B. 

Showing the quantity of water discharged in one minute by 
orifices differing inform and position. 



"5 5 

03 o 




o 
o 


.2 

•S s 




Form and position of the orifice. 


~ 


o ^ 


Constant bei| 
above the 
orifice. 




O 

s 

S 


No. of cub] 
charged in 


ft. in. lin. 




Lines. 




11 8 10 


Circular and Horizontal, 


6 


2311 




Circular and Horizontal, 


12 


9281 




Circular and Horizontal, 


24 


37203 




Rectangular and Horizontal, 


12 by 3 


2933 




Horizontal and Square, 


12 side. 


11817 




Horizontal and Square, 


24 side. 


47361 


9 


Vertical and Circular, 


6 


2018 




Vertical and Circular, 


12 


8135 


4 


Vertical and Circular, 


G 


1353 




Vertical and Circular, 


12 


5436 


5 7 


Vertical and Circular, 


12 


628 



126 



VARIOUS TABLES, &C. 



TABLE C. 

Containing the quantity of water discharged over a weir. 



dge of 
below 
nglish 


schar- 
every 
board, 
Buat's 


r dis- 
by ev- 
vaste- 
to ex- 
Scot- 


dge of 
below 
nglish 


schar- 
every 
board, 
Buat's 

schar- 
every 
board, 
ments 




V. IB '■^ 

a> 05 c3 

rt 3 & O 


^ S5;5'3 


05 H 

I- -3 

05 i: a 

3. £ 


cS 3 ^ O 


'3 t»> 05 ^- _: 

r^ XI S 05 -a 

eS 3 p 05 S 


he u 
ste 1 
face 




.5 O 03 


3 -9 05 

i O 

05 « ,cd 

'-' CO <<-! 


P.S 05*^ 


& .5 05 a g 

'S 2 5 M?B 


*- C3 b . 


■^ cS <« .E cs 


0) -3 O " G 


^ S 3 . 


«rtv--5rt -^ a ^ .)s a 


't-' > s «> 
o > <" (x> 

•fl 95 a) "o 


05 _ O rrj -> 

05 C I, 3 

«2; — J3 o c 

O "3 o ^ j; 


05 05 C _ 05 
•^^ be -i^ T3 3 . 


'S ^ " ?, 
O 05 

-3 05 05 "o 




^ *- *^ .-, 


^ 6JD.S ta tg 


^ o 05 ,a cJs 


y « *^ •« 


•3 05 H '-' O 

•^ bo .3 cS « 


■3 0> C O £ 


Q 


O 


O 


Q 


o 


O V 


1 


0.403 


0.428 


10 


12.748 


13.535 


2 


1.140 


1.211 


11 


14.707 


15.632 


3 


2.095 


2.226 


12 


16.758 


17.805 


4 


3.225 


3.427 


13 


18.895 


20.076 


5 


4.507 


4.789 


14 


21.117 


22.437 


6 


5.925 


6.295 


15 


23.419 


24.883 


7 


7.466 


7.933 


16 


25.800 


27.413 


8 


9.122 


9.692 


17 


28.258 


30.024 


9 


10.884 


] 1.564 


18 


30.786 


.32.710 



TABLE D. 

Showing the height of the fall in feet and the time of falling 

in seconds. 



Height of fall 


Time of falling 


Height of fall 


Time of falling 


in feet.j 


in seconds. 


in feet. 


in seconds. 


1 


.25 


12 


.864 


2 


.352 


14 


.935 . 


3 


.432 


16 


1. 


4 


.5 


20 


1.117 


5 


.557 


25 


1.25 


6 


.612 


30 


1.37 


7 


.666 


36 


1.5 


8 


.706 


40 


1.58 


9 


.75 


45 


1.67 


10 


.79 


50 


1.76 



VARIOUS TABLES, &C. 



127 



TABLE E. 

Showing the average velocity of the current of Rivers, cal- 
culated from the velocity of the surface in the middle of 
the streajn. — Robinson. 



Surface. 


Bottom. 


Mean. 


Surface. 


Bottom. 


Mean. 


1 


0.000 


•0.5 


31 


20.857 


25.924 


2 


0.172 


1.081 


32 


21.678 


26.839 


3 


0.537 


1.768 


33 


22.506 


27.753 


4 


1. 


2.5 


34 


23.339 


28.660 


5 


1.526 


3.263 


35 


24.167 


29.583 


6 


2.1 


4.050 


36 


25. 


30.5 


7 


2.709 


4.854 


37 


25.827 


3L413 


8 


3.342 


5.67 


38 


26.667 


32.333 


9 


4. 


6.5 


39 


27.51 


33.255 


10 


4.674 


7.33 


40 


28.345 


34.172 


11 


5.369 


8.184 


41 


29.192 


35.096 


12 


6.071 


9.036 


42 


30.030 


36.015 


13 


6.786 


9.893 


43 


30.880 


36.940 


14 


7.553 


10.756 


44 


31.742 


37.871 


15 


8.254 


11.622 


45 


32.581 


38.79 


16 


9. 


12.5 


46 


33.432 


39.716 


17 


9.753 


13.376 


47 


34.293 


40.646 


18 


10.463 


14.231 


48 


35.151 


41.570 


19 


11.283 


15.141 


49 


36. 


42.5 


20 


12.055 


16.027 


50 


36.857 


43.428 


21 


12.830 


16.837 


51 


.37.712 


44.356 


22 


13.616 


17.808 


52 


38.564 


45.282 


23 


14.202 


18.70 


53 


39.438 


46.219 


24 


15.194 


19.597 


54 


40.284 


47.142 


25 


16. 


20.5 


55 


41.165 


48.082 


26 


16.802 


21.401 


56 


42.016 


49.008 


27 


17.606 


22.303 


57 


42.968 


49.984 


28 


18.421 


23.210 


58 


43.771 


50.886 


29 


19.228 


24.114 


59 


44.036 


51.818 


30 


20.044 


25.022 


60 


45 509 


52.754 



128 



VARIOUS TABLES, &C. 



TABLE F. 



Of the elasticity of Steam. — By M. Arago and others. 



Elasticity of 
ste'm, the pres. 

of the atmos- 
phere being 1. 


Corresponding temp. 

in deg. of 

Fahrenheit. 


Elasticity of 
ste'm, the pres. 

of the atmos- 
phere being 1. 


Corresponding temp. 

in deg. of 

Fahrenheit. 


1 


212. 


13 


380.66 


li 


234. 


14 


386.94 


2 


250.5 


15 


392.86 


21 


263.8 


16 


398.48 


3 


275.2 


17 


403.83 


3i 


285. 


18 


408.92 


4 


293.7 


19 


413.78 


4| 


300.3 


20 


418.46 


5 


307.5 


21 


422.96 


5i 


314.24 


22 


427.28 


6 


320.36 


23 


431.42 


6i 


326.26 


24 


435.56 


7 


331.7 


25 


439.34 


n 


336.86 


30 


457.16 


8 


341.78 


35 


472.73 


9 


350.78 


40 


486.59 


10 


358.78 


45 


499.24 


11 


366.85 


50 


510.6 


12 


374. 







VARIOUS TABLES, &C. 



129 



TABLE G. 

Showing the force and heat of Steam. 



O c^ 


<D 






rO 




■^ id 






o 


0) 




J^ & 


o 




^^ 


a 




O 0) 






•l-l 


c> 




fccii 


■i-j 




j2 -— < M 










CS O 


0) 




d d 






■^ d 


«i 










S c£ 


"' 




O 


'■^ 




T^ O 






(U ,d 






tH -M 


Oi 




r-<^ 


> 




O 


;> 


O 




t^ 


IS 


^ 


S 


^ 


^ 


rri 


ft 


r/j 


0) 



5' 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

^40 



tn CD 






rn 3 
S3 a; 

as 



c o 



'2271 

230i 

232f 

235i 

2371 

2391 

250| 

2591 

267 

273 



13 \ 278 
1^ ^283 




'% 



130 



VARIOUS TABLES, &C. 



TABLE H. 

Showing the expansive force of steam, expressing the de- 
grees of heat at each lb. of pressure on the safety valve. 



Degrees of 


Lbs. of 


Degrees of 


Lbs. of 


Degrees of 


Lbs. of 


heat. 


pressure. 


heat. 


pressure. 


heat. 


pressure. 


212° 





268® 


24 


298^ 


48 


216 


1 


270 


25 


299 


49 


219 


2 


271 


26 


300 


50 


222 


3 


273 


27 


301 


51 


225 


4 


274 


28 


302 


52 


229 


5 


275 


29 


303 


53 


232 


6 


277 


30 


304 


54 


234 


7 


278 


31 


305 


55 


236 


8 


279 


32 


306 


56 


' 239 


9 


281 


33 


307 


57 


241 


10 


282 


34 


308 


58 


244 


11 


283 


35 


309 


59 


246 


12 


285 


36 


310 


60 


248 


13 


286 


37 


311 


61 


250 


14 


287 


38 


312 


62 


252 


15 


288 


39 


313 


63 


254 


16 


289 


40 


313i 


64 


256 


17 


290 


41 


314 


65 


258 


18 


291 


42 


315 


66 


260 


19 


293 


43 


316 


67 


261 


20 


294 


44 


317 


68 


263 


21 


295 


45 


318 


69 


265 


22 


296 


46 


319 


70 


267 


23 


297 


47 


320 


71 



VARIOUS TABLES, &C. 



131 



TABLE I. 

Showing the elastic force of steam, — hy Dr. Ure. 





Elastic 




Elastic 




Elastic 




Elastic 


Temp. 


force. 


Temp. 


force. 


Temp. 

1 


force, 


Temp. 


force. 


24 


0.170 


155^ 


8.500 


1 242° 


53.600 


218.8° 


104.400 


32 


0.200 


160 


9.600 


245 


56.340 


283.8 


107.700 


40 


0.250 


165 


10.800 


245.8 


57.100 


285.2 


112.200 


50 


0.360 


170 


12.050 


! 248.5 


60.400 


287.2 


114.800 


55 


0.416 


175 


13.550 


250 


61.900 


289 


118.200 


60 


516 1 


180 


15.160 


251.6 


63.500 


290 


120.150 


65 


0.630 


185 


16.900 


: 254.5 


66.700 


292.3 


123.100 


70 


0.726 


190 


19.000 


, 255 


67.250 


294 


126.700 


75 


0.860 


195 


21.100 


' 257.5 


69.800 


295 


129.000 


80 


1.010 


200 


23.600 


! 260 


72.300 


295.6 


130.400 


85 


1.170 


205 


25.900 


! 260.4 


72.800 


297.1 


133.900 


90 


1.360 


210 


23.880 


262.8 


75.900 


298.8 


137.400 


95 


1.640 


212 


30.000 


264.9 


77.900 


300 


139.700 


100 


1.860 


216.6 


33.400 


265 


78.040 


300.6 


140.900 


105 


2.100 


220 


35.540 


267 


81.900 


302 


144.300 


110 


2.456 


221.6 


36.700 


269 


84.900 


303.8 


147.700 


115 


2.820 


225 


39.110 


^ 270 


86.300 


305 


150.560 


120 


3.300 


226.3 


40.100 


271.2 


88.000 


306.8 


155.400 


125 


3.380 


230 


43.100 


273.7 


91.200 


308 


157.700 


130 


4.366 


230.5 


43.500 


275 


93.480 


310 


161.300 


135 


5.070 


234.5 


46.800 


1 275.7 


94.600 


311.4 


164.800 


140 


5.770 


235 


47.220 


; 277.9 


97.800 


312 


167.000 


145 


6.600 


238.5 


50.300 


279.5 


101.600 


312 


165.5 


150 


7.530 


240 


51.700 


280 


101.900 







132 VARIOUS TABLES, &C. 

TABLE J. 

Showing the velocity of motion for horing and turning. 



BORING. 


TURNING. 


Inches 


Revolution of shaft 


Inches 


Revolution of shaft 


diameter. 


per minute. 


diameter. 


per minute. 


1 


25. 


1 


50. 


2 


12.5 


2 


25. 


3 


8.33 


3 


16.67 


4 


6.25 


4 


12.50 


5 


5. 


5 


10. 


6 


4.16 


6 


8.32 


7 


3.57 


7 


7.15 


8 


3.125 


8 


6.25 


9 


2.77 


9 


5.55 


10 


2.5 


10 


5. 


15 


1.66 


15 


3.33 


20 


1.25 


20 


2.50 


25 


1. 


25 


2. 


30 


0.833 


30 


1.667 


35 


0.714 


35 


1.430 


40 


0.625 


40 


1.250 


45 


0.56 


45 


1.12 


50 


0.5 


50 


1. 


60 


0.417 


60 


0.834 


70 


0.358 


70 


0.716 


80 


0.313 


80 


0.626 


90 


0.278 


90 


0.556 


100 


0.25 


100 


0.50 



It will be seen that the velocity of turning is double 
that of boring. Many turners prefer different veloci- 
ties, but the above is generally considered to be ad- 
vantageous. The progression of the cutter is from 
y\th to gVth for the first, and -^-^ih. to 2Vth of an inch 
for the second cut. 



VARIOUS TABLES, &C. 



133 



TABLE K. 

Of the Specific Gravity of Metals. 





Specific 




Specific 




gravity. 




gravity. 


Arsenic, . 


5763 


Cast bismuth. 


9822 


Cast antimony, . 


6702 


Cast silver, . 


10474 


Cast zinc. 


7190 


Hammered silver, . 


10510 


Cast iron. 


7207 


Cast lead, . 


11352 


Bar iron. 


7788 


Mercury, 


13568 


Cast tin. 


7291 


Jeweller's gold, . 


15709 


Cast nickel. 


7807 


Gold coin, 


17647 


Cast cobalt. 


7811 


Cast gold, pure, . 


19258 


Hard steel. 


7816 


Pure gold, hammered. 


19361 


Soft steel, . 


7833 


Platinum, pure, . 


19500 


Cast brass. 


8395 


Platinum, hammered. 


20336 


Cast copper, 


87SS 


Platinum wire, 


21041 



TABLE L. 

Specific gravity of Gases, that of atmospheric air heing=l. 





Specific 




Specific 




gravity. 




gravity. 


Hydrogen, 


0.0694 


Carbonic acid, 


1.5277 


Carbon, 


0.416G 


Alcohol vapor. 


1.6133 


Steam of water, 


0.4S1 


Chlorine, 


2.500 


Ammonia, . 


0.5902 


Nitrous acid, 


2.638 


Carburetted hydrogen. 


0.9722 


Sulphuric acid. 


2.777 


Azote, 


0.9723 


Nitric acid. 


3.75 


Oxygen, . 


1.1111 


Oil of turpentine, . 


5.043 


Muriatic acid, 


1.2840 







TABLE M. 

Showing the No. of Wire generally used in carding, from 

12'5 to 40'5. 

Top sheets, 24, 28, 32, three or four of each kind to the card. 
Main cylinder sheets, 90 to 100, or 105, four inches wide. 
Filleting, or fillets for Doffer, 115 to 120 do. do. 

Do. do. Licker in, 75 do. do. 

Do. do. Cleaners, 85 to 90 do. do. 



134 



VARIOUS TABLES, &C. 



TABLE N. 
Showing the scale of Sheets and Filletings. — Montgomery. 













X! 




J3 1 


1 
















00 




^ 
















■a 

CO 








r-1 

c 




a; 












-a 




.c 




Cfl 




S 






To Card for all sizes of 


en 




03 









^ 




D- 






Yarn, 


0) 

















C 










m 


ai 


tn 


•s 


m 


01 


w 


c 








^3 


a 




C 




C 




C 


*~ 








C 


■^ 


CO 


fS 


K 


IS 


m 


'<< 


a 








1— 1 










D. 










<u 










w 









fa^ 
















80 




8 


H 


26 




7 


H 
28 


8 


B9 

n 


90 




Between C 


20 


7 


Breakers. ) 


No. 10 and No. 36. { 


80 


9 


24 


8 


28 


8 30 


8 


u 


90 


Finishers. 5 


Between C 


80 


9 


26 


7 


30 


835 


9 


u 


90 


Breakers. ) 


No. 36 & No. 100. I 


90 


10 


30 


8 


35 


940 


10 


u 


100 


Finishers. ) 


Between C 


90 


IC 


30 


8 


38 


940 


10 


a 


100 


Breakers. ^ 


N0.IOO&N0.2OO4 


100 


12 


35! 9 


40 10i45 


(12 


n 


110 


Finishers. 5 



TABLE O. 

Showing the draught produced hy any change wheel from 
20 to 35 teeth, assuming the top carrier to have 72 teeth^ 
the hack roller wheel 56, and the pinion on front roller 
18 teeth. Diameter of front roller 1, and hack roller -J of 
an inch. 







02 




CO 




m 




a 




s 




C 




a 























s 


m 


a 


m 


C 


CD 


a 


m 


Ph 


A 

&£ 


Oi 


tX) 


Pk 


.a 
so 


Oh 




tn 


3 


CO 




aj 


s 

C3 


ai 


c3 


















, C2 


Q 











Q 




32 


Q 


20 


12.8 


24 


10.66 


28 


9.14 


8.00 


21 


12.18 


25 


10.24 


29 


8.82 


33 


7.75 


22 


11.63 


26 


9.84 


30 


8.52 


34 


7.52 


23 


11.12 


27 


9.48 


31 


8.25 


35 


1 7.31 



VARIOUS TABLES, &C. 



135 



TABLE P. 

Showing the draught produced by any change wheel from 
20 to 35 teeth, assuming the top carrier to have 116 teeth, 
the hack roller wheel 64, and the pinion on front roller 
27 teeth. Diam. of front roller 1-^-, and hack do. |- inch. 



rn 




rfl 




m 




tn 




c 




c 




a 1 








O 




o 




c 








C 


m 


c 


VI 


"S 


m 


c 


s 


P-i 




cu 




&4 


fcD 


Ph 


•a 


■4-9 


3 


■*-» 


3 


■*-> 


3 




s 


•S2 


ri 


.£2 


cS 


,22 


etf 




ca 


















O 


« 


a 


Q 


o 


ft 


o 


Q 


20 


17.6 


24 


14.69 


28 


12.64 


32 


11.03 


21 


16.8 


25 


14.10 


29 


12.18 


33 


10.70 


22 


16.0:3 


26 


13.56 


30 


11.77 


34 


10.39 


23 


15.33 


27 


13.07 


31 


11.39 


35 


10.09 



TABLE Q. 

Showing the distances at which the rollers should he set in 
using different lengths of cotton. 



faJD ® 


r 7 "^ 

8 


^ o 


f U to 7^ 


a:" i "o 'f 


r 7 

8 


toll 


-l 


?i ?^ 


0) 
^ Q 1 


1 


1 73 ^ 1 


l| to 7 
lito7 


I CD ^ ^ J 


1 


tolA 
to If 


> 




9 ^ 1-3- 

;ri t^ -^16 


OJ 3 


lito7 


|sis 


It^o 


to If 




73 


^ 1 li J 


■-i 'Tj 


.lito7j 


O rj^ C; ifi ' -1 J 

■ S ^ 5 o *- -'•4 


to 1/^ 


J 


B^ 



TABLE R. 

Showing the gain of carriage necessary for spinning vari- 
ous nmnhers. 



be '^ 

.3 O 


f 25 to 30 ^ 


0) 

be be 

S ^ 1^ 


r li to 2f ^ 


O 7J 




35 to 45 


-%%^t 


2i to 4-1- 


!-4 VO (D 




45 to 55 


\ '^- '^ 2 <! 


4i to 5i 


r 73^.3 


For 

No's 


55 to 65 
. 65 to 70 ^ 


the 

of Ccl 

ought 
from 


51 to 6 
L 61 to 7 . 


inche 
stretc 
to 58 



136 



VARIOUS TABLES, &C. 



TABLE S. 

Showing the diameters of Shaft Journals with horse power 
of engine. — Grier's Works, p. 162. 



5 


10 
5.9 


20 


30. 


40. 


50. 
3.5 


60. 
3.3 


70. 
3.1 


80. 


90. 
2.9 


100. 


4.7 


4.1 


3.7 


3.0 


2.7 


6 


6.3 


5.0 


4.4 


4.0 


3.7 


3.5 


3.4 


3.2 


3 


2.9 


7 


6.6 


5.2 


4.6 


4.2 


3.9 


3.6 


3.5 


3.4 


3.3 


3.1 


8 


6.9 


5.5 


4.8 


4.4 


4.1 


3.9 


3.7 


3.5 


3.4 


3.3 


9 


7.2 


5.7 


5.0 


4.5 


4.2 


4.0 


3.7 


3.6 


3.5 


3.4 


10 


7.4 


5.9 


5.2 


4.7 


4.4 


4.1 


3.9 


3.7 


3.6 


3.5 


15 


8.5 


7.0 


6.0 


5.5 


5.1 


4.6 


4.5 


4.3 


4.2 


4.0 


20 


9.3 


7.4 


6.6 


5.9 


5.6 


5.2 


5.0 


4.6 


4.5 


4.4 


30 


10.7 


8.4 


7.4 


6.9 


6.5 


5.9 


5.7 


5.5 


5.2 


5.0 


40 


11.7 


9.5 


8.3 


7.4 


6.9 


6.6 


6.2 


5.9 


5.7 


5.6 


50 


12.6 


10.0 


9.0 


8.0 


7.4 


7.2 


6.8 


6.5 


6.2 


5.9 


60 


13.6 


10.8 


9.3 


8.6 


7.7 


7.4 


7.2 


6.8 


6.7 


6.4 



In the above table, the No. of horse power of en- 
gine are found in the left hand column, and the No. of 
revolutions per minute of shaft are found in the top 
column. To find the diameter of shaft, look for power 
of engine in the side column, and the No. of turns of 
shaft per minute in top column, and where these 
points meet is found the diameter of shaft. Thus : 
the journal of a shaft is required of a 40 horse power 
engine, the shaft making 30 revolutions per min. 
By tracing these numbers to the points, or where these 
columns meet, we find 8.3 = the diameter of shaft in 
inches. 



USEFUL RECIPES, &C. 137 



USEFUL RECIPES FOR WORKMEN. 
SOLDERS. 

" For Lead. Melt one part of block tin, and when 
in a state of fusion, add two parts of lead. If a small 
quantity of this, when melted, is poured on the table, 
there will, if it be good, arise little bright stars upon it. 
Resin should be used with this solder. 

For Tin. Take four parts of pewter, one of tin, 
and one of bismuth; rnelt them together, and run 
them into thin slips. Resin is also used with this 
solder. 

For Iron. Good tough brass, with a little borax. 

CEMENTS. 

" A very strong glue is made by adding some pow- 
dered chalk to common glue when melted ; and a glue 
which will resist the action of water, may be formed 
by boiling one pound of common glue in two quarts, 
(English measure) of skimmed milk." 

An excellent cement for fastening leaders, or join- 
ing laps, is made as follows : Take of good glue 5 
parts and let it dissolve ; when hot, pour 3 parts of 
Venice turpentine, and let them warm (not boil) mod- 
erately 3 or 4 hours ; if it is by heating too thick, add 
vinegar. Apply it quite warm, and let it dry. This 
is a very strong and permanent cement. 

VARNISH FOR TOP ROLLERS. 

1. Take of gum tragacanth 1^ oz. and dissolve it 
in a pint of water. 2. Take \ pint spts. vinegar, in 
10 



138 USEFUL RECIPES, &C. 

this put ^ oz. alum and J oz. borax ; then, for ^ pint 
of varnish take one-fourth part good glue, one table- 
spoonful of the tragacanth, (dissolved) two table- 
spoonsful of the alum and borax ; then put in vinegar 
to thin, and chrome yellow, (or any other color) suffi- 
cient to give it a coat. Apply to rollers when warm, 
and give from three to seven coats. 

AN EXCELLENT COMPOSITION 

Foe appeasing the heating of journals exposed to 
great friction, is made by melting equal parts of 
tallow and beeswax and adding to this liquid, to the 
consistency of a paste, the common polishing lead or 
lustre. This composition forms itself into a new 
metal on the surface of the bearing, filling all inequali- 
ties and presenting to the eye a smoothness of finish 
not to be exceeded by the most skilful turner. All 
impurities should be removed from the box and 
journal previous to its application. But a thin coat 
should be put on at once. This answers as well on 
the cogs of wheels that have a tendency to wear 
roughly. 

Where shafts are required to run with great ve- 
locity, it is a good plan to fit pieces of zinc to the 
boxes. This metal, being a non-conductor, answers 
its purpose quite well. Many of the collars or rests 
of spindles are made from this, and other malleable 
metals combined. Sheets of fine pasteboard com- 
pressed so that their edges are exposed as bearings, 
serve a very good office for wide boxes. 



MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL aUESTIONS. 139 

A composition for the same purpose is much in use 
in fine mills, formed of brass 4 parts, of lead 1 part 
and malleable iron 1 part, &;c. 

It is often the case, that the common brass bearings 
of the Lapping Machine are lined with refined steel; 
this answers a very good purpose, but it is a fact 
which trial has well substantiated, that good cast iron 
skilfully wrought and fitted, will last as long, if not 
longer, than brass, steel or any other metal as yet 
ever used. This remark will apply to the numerous 
other uses made of this metal. 



MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL QUESTIONS. 

These exercises are intended as illustrations of 
the mode of calculating the changes and operations 
which are so frequently required in the course of 
cotton manufacturing. The manager can readily 
vary them, or substitute others, as the occasion may 
require. 

To find the number or size of yarn from having the 
weight and length of lap given at the Carding engine. 

Multiply the length of lap by the draughts through 
the whole process, and divide this result by the num- 
ber of doublings, and you have the length in inches 
of the lap. Divide this result by the circumference, 
midtiplied by the threads in a lea, and the leas in a hank, 
^nd you have the hanks produced ; then say by pro- 



140 MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL aUESTIONS. 

portion, as the weight of lap — the allowance made 
for flowings, waste, &c., is to number drachms in one 
pound, so are the number hanks produced, to the hanks 
in one pound. 

1. Suppose the weight of lap to be 118 drachms, 
the length of do. 67 inches, and the draught as fol- 
lows. The draught of Carding Engine 74. The 
draught of Drawing Frame, 1st head, 7.5x2d head, 
7.5x3d head, 7.5=421.875. The draught of Speeder 
10.50. The draught of Mule jenny 9.75. The num- 
ber of doublings 528, and the allowance for flowings, 
tops, &c., 8 drachms. Required the number of yarn. 

Thus: 
Draught Drawing Fr., 421.875 
do. Carding Engine, 74 

1687500 
2953125 



31218.750 
do. Speeder, lOj 

15609375 
312187500 



327796.875 
do. Mule jenny, 9f 

1638984375 

8194921875 
2950171875 



3196019.53125 



MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL aUESTIONS. 



141 



Length of lap, 



3196019.53125 
67 

2237213671875 
1917611718750 



No. dbls., 528)214133308.59375(405555.508. 
2112 



2933 
2640 

2933 
2640 



2930 
2640 



2908 
2640 

2685 
2640 



4593 
4224 



Cir. of reel, 54 in. 
Threads in lea, 80 

4320 
Leas in hank, 7 



3697 



30240 



Now, number of inches produced from 

lapH-30240)405555.508(=:13.41 hanks produced 
30240 from the lap of 

118 drachms. 



103155 
90720 

124355 
120960 

33950 
30240 



3710 



The hanks produced from the 118 drs. are 13.41. 
Now to find the hanks produced from one pound, we 



142 MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL aUESTIONS. 

subtract the 8 drs. for flowings, &c., and then say as 
the remainder is to the drs. in one pound, so are the 
hanks produced from theWS drs., to the hanks in one 
'pound. 

Weight of lap, 118 drs. 
Loss flowings, &c., 8 drs. 

in pound. 

110 : 256 :: 13.41 
256 

8046 
6705 

2682 



110)3432.96(31.20 size 
330 of yarn. 



132 
110 

229 

220 



96 
110 



To find the size of roving. 

Multiply the number of teeth in the counter wheel, 
by teeth in the bell wheel, and this product by the cir. 
of the front roller, and this latter product by the 
number of spindles, for a dividend. 

Then for a divisor, multiply the cir. of reel by the 
threads in a lea, and this product by the leas in a hank. 



MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL aUESTlONS. 



143 



Counter wheel, say is 
Bell wheel, 

Cir. of front roller, 



Spindles, say 



20 
125 


Cir. of 
Thr'ds 

Leas in 


reel, 54 in. 
in lea, 80 


2500 
3.54 


4320 
hank, 7 


10000 
12500 
7500 




30240 


8850.00 
112 






1770000 

885000 
* 885000 




0)991200.00(32.77. 
90720 




84000 
60480 




235200 
211680 




235200 
211680 







23520 



This result multiplied by number of ounces in a 
pound, and divided by the weight of a set of rovings, 
will give the size of roving required. 



144 MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL aUESTTONS. 

32.77 

16 ounces in a pound. 



19662 



oz. 3277 



Suppose set rovings 108)524.32(4.85 size of roving. 

432 

923 
864 



592 
540 

~52 



To find the 'price or cost of any mixture. 
Multiply the several proportions by their respective 
prices, their sum divided by 100 lbs., (or any other 
number assumed as a denominator,) gives the price 
per lb. of mixture. 

1. Suppose you are spinning No. 30's vv^eft yarn 
from the following qualities of cotton, viz. : 

f 35 lbs. Surats, at 5 cts. per lb.=175 cts. 

I 45 do. Orleans, " 7 do.=^ 315 cts. 

100 Ibs.^ ^^ ^^ Boweds, " Bj do.= 65 cts. 

(^10 do. Waste, " 4 do.= 40 cts. 

100 100)595 

2. Suppose you are spinning No. 40 warp yarn 
from the following qualities of cotton, viz. : 

f 60 lbs. Egyptians, at 9 cts. pr.lb.=540 cts. 
100 lbs -<' 30 do. Sea Island, " 9j do.= 285 cts. 
[lO do. Boweds, 8^ do.= 85 cts. 

loo 100)910 

g^Vpr.lb. 



MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL aUESTIONS. 145 

3. Suppose you are spinning No. 25's warp yarn 
from the following qualities of cotton, viz. : 

fSOlbs. N. Orleans, at I2l cts.= 625 cts. 
100 lbs.<;' 25 do. Upland, " 12 cts.rz:=300 cts. 
1^25 do. Alabama, " 14 cts.= 350 cts. 
100 100)1275 

12j cts. pr. 
lb.= average price of mixture. 

4. Required the cost per lb. of a mixture of 5200 
lbs., of the following qualities of cotton, viz. : 

f 2000 lbs. N. Orleans, at lOj cts.= 21000 cts. 

<!^ 1800 do. Upland, " 10 cts.= 18000 cts. 

U400 do. Sea Island, "12 cts.= 16800 cts. 

5200 )55800(10.73+ 

5. Suppose this mixture cost you lOf cts. per lb., 
and you found that the following qualities made as 
good a bing : required the cheaper mixture ? 

f 2500 lbs. N. Orleans, at 10^ cts.= 26250 cts. 

1700 do. Upland, " Oj cts.= 16150 cts. 

750 do. Sea Island, " 12 cts.= 9000 cts. 

250 do. Boweds, " 81 cts.= 2125 cts. 

5200 )53525(10.30. 

It will be seen, that the latter is soine yVo ^^- P®^ 
lb. cheaper. It is a very essential point to have the 
cotton regularly weighed, and entered in a book for 
that purpose, so that the price of the yarn can be 
easily ascertained. 

In many small mills, it is often found that a quality 
of cotton, to appearance, quite good and profitable, is 
not so much so, when compared with another quality 



■< 



146 MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL QUESTIONS. ^- 

of an inferior cost and mixture. The keeping of this 
little book is a correct guide, and well pays for the 
care and attention bestowed upon it. 

To find how many inches of yarn one inch of roving 

will make. 

Multiply the drivers and driven wheels together 
separately, and the product of the latter divided by 
the former, is the number of inches of yarn made 
from one inch of rove. 

1. Suppose the first driver is 26, the first driven 
116, the second driver 30, and the second driven 58 ; 
required the inches produced. 

1st driver, 26 teeth. 
2d do. 30 do. 



780 



1st driven, 116 teeth. 

2d do. 58 



928 
580 

780)6728(8.62 
6240 

4880 
4680 



2000 
1560 



44 

« 

2. Suppose the back roller is f , and the front do. 
f of an inch in diam., what is the difference of pro- 
duce or roller draught ? 

Multiply the result of the drivers by diam. of back 
roll., and that of the driven by diam. of front roll. ; 
the latter divided by the former is the inches pro- 
duced, or draught. 



MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL QUESTIONS. 147 



780 
7_ 

5460 



6728 
9 



5460)60552(11.09 
5460 

5952 
5460 



49200 
49140 



60 
Then, 11.09— 8.62=2.47=roller draught. 

To find the proportionate velocities which wheels 
should hear to each other in order to furnish a reg- 
ular speed. 

Divide the difference between the less and greater 
velocities by the number of wheels less one of the 
train ; this will give a mean quantity, showing the 
average difference that should exist between each suc- 
cessive wheel of the train from the least to the great- 
est, as inArithmetical Progression. 

What is the number of each of 3 wheels to pro- 
duce 20 rev. per min, the driver having 120 teeth and 
making 4 rev. per min. ? and what their velocities ? 

. ( 120, 40 and 24. 
^''^' \ 4, 12 and 20. 
Operation : 

20—4=16, and 3—1=2, and 16^2=8=average dif 

1 20x4-^1 2=40=2d wheelX12-20-24=3d wheel. 

Suppose you have a system 13 breaker engines 

delivering into one railway with 1^ draught, and it is 

required to deliver two strands of the same size into 



148 MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL aUESTIONS. 

as many railways with no draught ; how many more 
engines are necessary ? 

Ans. 4J-. 
Operation : 

13 enginesH-ll=8| engines with no draught, which 
will furnish the same weight as the 13 with the In- 
draught. 2 railways of 8f engines=:17|- — 13r=r4j- 
additional engines. 

Suppose you have a system of 12 carding engines, 
delivering into a single railway of 1^ draught, and it 
is required to make the sliver one-fourth lighter with 
no draught ; how many additional engines are nec- 
essary ? Ans.l^. 

12 engines with 1 J railway draught, turn out the 
same length as 18 engines with no railway draught; 
then 18-^4, the deduction necessary=4|^ and 18 — 
41=131 engines with no railway stretch to give the 
same w^eight as 18 with the above draught; and 
13j — 12=1 J additional engines. 

Other examples as familiar, might be given, but the 
above fully determine the mode pursued in calcula- 
tion. We would hope no young man might fail to 
cultivate a taste for becoming perfectly acquainted 
with the numerous and as various changes required 
in the operation of mill work. 



PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 149 

PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 

It will be seen that the following questions are of 
a general nature, embracing sufficient information 
for the manager, and clearly show the mode of work- 
ing most any problem in the common course of mill- 
work. 

A great many works have been published, showing 
the use of this rule. The few remarks and explana- 
tions which follow, may be found of service to the me- 
chanic and general reader. 



This rule was invented by Edmund Gunter, and is 
made in a number of forms ; the most common of 
which is that generally used as a two foot measure 
by carpenters. 

The reader will perceive that on the face of the 
rule are four lines, marked A, B, C and D. A will 
be found on the first, B on the second, C on the third, 
and D on the fourth line. The three first, A, B and 
C, are double lines, one of which is on the rule, and 
the other two are on the slider. The latter line D, 
is a single line, and is technically called "the girt 
line.'' These lines with their letters attached to the 
scale, require to be familiarly understood and desig- 
nated, as the problems to be performed will show. 
Inattention to this point will lead to confusion and 
blindness of ideas in using it. 

The reader will perceive on his rule at the left 



150 PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 

hand, the figure 1. This 1 may be called 1, 10, 100, 
or any number whose right hand figures are composed 
of cyphers. If we call it 1, then the next right hand 
figure 2 must be called two, and 3 three, 4 four, and 
so on until we come to another figure 1, which in this 
case must be called 10. Now, as we annex a cipher 
to this 1, we must also annex one to 2, making 20, 
and so on, until we come to 10, which now becomes 
100. Again, suppose we call the figure 1 at the left 
hand 100, then the 2 becomes 200, and so on until 
we come to 1 again which becomes 1000. This ratio 
must be clearly understood. 

Again, you will perceive two parallel lines running 
the whole length of the scale on every line of the 
several divisions. Now their use is this ; say we 
wish to find any odd number, 13 for instance. We 
call the 1 (in middle of scale,) 10, and as there are 
ten divisions, each divided into five spaces, making 
50 in all from this 1 or 10 to the 2 or 20 on the right, 
we find that five spaces make 1 whole number ; then 
15 spaces from the right of 1 or 10 will make the 
difference between 10 and 13, viz., 3. Suppose we 
wanted 15. We count on to the right 2 numbers, 
(10 spaces,) and find that a line or stroke projects 
above the parallel lines of A ; this is 15, this stroke 
indicating the central distance, or point between 10 
and 20; to find 16 we have only to count 5 more 
spaces, and so on until we come to 2 or 20. 

Again, suppose we wanted 23, on A. We perceive 
that between 2 and 3, or 20 and 30, there are 10 
spaces corresponding to the difference between 20 



PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 151 

and 30 ; now a little reflection will convince us that 
every space here must count one ; then to find 23 
we count 3 more of these spaces : suppose you 
wanted 25 on A, or B ; all we have to do is to count 
5 spaces to the right of 2 or 20, or 2 more than in 
the last instance ; here, we perceive as above, a point 
projecting above the parallel lines and for the same 
reason, viz., to show the half-way distance or point. 
Suppose we wanted 25 J or 25.5. We perceive that 
between our means, viz., 20 and 30 there are short 
lines or points extending only to the first or lower 
line of the parallel lines on A. ; now these are halves 
of one, or unity ; then all we have to do to find our 
number 25.5 is to count one of these short spaces to 
the right of the whole number 25 ; if we want 28.5, 
all we have to do is to count to the right of 2 or 20 
the number of spaces corresponding to the difference 
between these numbers ; and so on for any number 
or fraction between the 20 and 30. 

Again, the reader will perceive that between 3 and 
4 or 30 and 40 there are but ten points or spaces ; 
and that of course every one must count 1. Sup- 
pose we want 32 ; count 2 spaces (the difference 
between the numbers 30 and 32,) and we have it ; 
if we want 35, count 5 spaces to the right of 3 or 
30 and we find the number directly on the projecting 
point in the middle, between the 30 and 40. The 
other figures and spaces to the right of those of which 
we have spoken, are used similarly, the number of 
spaces in every instance being the same, though in a 
shorter distance or scale. 



152 PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 

Let US in part review our observations, and first, 
begin back at the left hand of our rule and call the 
1 one hundred ; then of course it follows that 2 must 
called two hundred, 3 three hundred, and so on of the 
other right hand figures. Now, we perceive between 
1 and 2, (assumed here as 100 and 200,) there are ten 
spaces or divisions that project to the top of the par- 
allel lines on A ; therefore, each space counts ten. 

Again, we perceive that each of these spaces or 
divisions are divided mXo five equal parts, making in 
all 50 spaces ; and for every space the number 2, or, 
in other words, every space will here count 2 ; for 
10h-5z=2. Now, if we wanted to find 108, we count 
to the right of 1, that is, 100, four of these spaces and 
it gives us the point or place that stands for the num- 
ber 108. If we wanted to find 120, we count to the 
right two of the longer spaces and we have the posi- 
tion, and so on for any number between our means, 1 
and 2, assumed as 100 and 200. 

Again, the reader will percieve between the next 
division of the scale, (from 2 to 3,) assumed-as 200 and 
300, there are ten spaces that project to the top of 
the parallel lines on A ; each one of these counting 
ten. By referring to the rule we perceive that these 
spaces are divided by lines extending to the lower or 
bottom of the parallel lines on A ; each one of these 
shorter spaces will count five, for 10-^2=5, and 5x 
2=10x10 ==100=number spaces between the 2 and 
3, assumed here as 200 and 300. 

Again, let us take the third division, viz., 3 and 
4; here we perceive as before, 10 spaces, and that 



PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 153 

each space must count ten. If we wanted to find 310 
we count one space to the right of 300, and we have 
it. If 380, we count eight spaces to the right of 300, 
and find the point, and so on for any number. 

The other divisio'ns of the scale to 1, (in this case 
1000,) are the same in their position and value as 
those between 300 and 400. 

Once more, we perceive that nearly in the middle 
of our rule is the figure 1 . Now, as has been inti- 
mated, we may call this 10, 100, 10,000 or «7iy number 
whose left hand figure is 1; with cyphers annexed. 
But we must bear in mind the ratio : If this 10 is 
called 1000, then the 2 at the right must be called 
2000, and if the former is called 10,000 or 1,000,000, 
then the latter must be called 20,000, or 2,000,000. 

By referring to the rule we perceive between the 
numbers 1 and 2, (assumed here as 1000 and 2000,) 
there are ten spaces that project to the top of the 
parallel lines on A ; therefore, each one of these must 
count for 100, (for 1000-10=100,) and also, that 
these last spaces are subdivided into five parts ; there- 
fore, each small space projecting to the lower parallel 
line on A, must count for twenty, for 100-^5=20. 

The reader will not fail of thoroughly understand- 
ing the foregoing observations, before attempting to 
use the rule. The divisors and guage points for 
measuring the distances, weight, solidity, propor- 
tions, &c., of different properties, bodies, (fee, are 
given in the following tables compiled from authentic 

sources and experience. 
11 



154 PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 



TABLE I. 



Showing the guage points of ?netals, <^c., (^c, in inches. 



Cast Iron, 


Cyl. 


Square, i 

1.95 


Brick, 


Cyl. 


Square. 


2.20 


4.19 


371 


Bar Iron, 


2.18 


1.90 


Slate, 


3.63 


3 20 


Steel, 


2.122 


1.88 


Stone, 


3.80 


3.40 


Copper, 


2. 


1.77 


Sand, 


4.81 


4.25 


Brass, 


2.047 


1.814 


Oak, 


6.02 


5.34 


Lead, 


1.761 


1.561 


Elm, 


7.956 


7 05 


Tin, 


2.195 


1.94 


Beech, 


6.15 


633 


Zinc, 


2.21 


1.96 


Pine, 


7.33 


6.47 



TABLE II. 

Showing the guage points of different properties in 
feet, in feet and inches, and in inches. 



Cubic Inches, 


Square. 


Circular. 


Globe. 


FFF. 

578 


FII. 


III. 


FI. 


II. 


F. 


I. 


83 


1 


106 


1273 


105 


191 


Cubic Feet, 


1 


144 


1728 


1833 


22 


191 


33 


Wine Gals., 


134 


1925 


231 


245 


264 


235 


441 


Ale Gals., 


163 


235 


282 


299 


359 


312 


538 


Imp'l Gals., 


16 


231 


2773 


294 


353 


3064 


5295 


Water, 


16 


231 


2773 


294 


353 


3064 


5295 


Gold, 


814 


1175 


141 


149 


179 


155 


269 


Silver, 


15 


216 


261 


276 


334 


286 


5 


Mercury, 


118 


169 


203 


216 


25 


225 


389 


Brass, 


193 


218 


333 


354 


424 


369 


627 


Copper, 


18 


26 


312 


331 


394 


345 


595 


Lead, 


141 


203 


243 


258 


31 


27 


465 


Wt. Iron, 


207 


297 


357 


378 


453 


394 


682 


Tin, 


219 


315 


378 


401 


481 


419 


723 


C. Iron & Zinc, 


222 


32 


384 


407 


489 


424 


733 


Steel, 


202 


292 


352 


372 


448 


385 


671 


Coal, 


127 


183 


22 


233 


22 


242 


42 


Free Stone, 


632 


915 


11 


1162 


14 


121 


21 



PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 155 



TABLE III. 

Showing the guage points for area of polygons from 
3 to 12 sides. 



3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


.433 


1.000 


1.720 


2.598 


3.634 


4.828 


6.182 


7.694 


9.366 


11.196 



TABLE IV. 

Showing the guage points of a circle, ^-c. 
Area. C, & A. C. & D. S. R. J. S. E. S. T. 



7854 


0795 


3.1416 


141 


886 


115 



TABLE V. 

Showing the diam. and guage points of pumping engines. 





Diam. 

3 


G. P. 


Diam. 


G. P. 


Diam. 


G. P. 


Diam . 


G. P. 




165 


10 


176 


17 


528 


24 


406 




4 


292 


11 


222 


18 


591 


25 


114 




5 


457 


12 


264 


19 


696 


26 


124 




6 


66 


13 


308 


20 


731 


27 


134 




7 


89 


14 


358 


21 


81 


28 


143 




8 


117 


15 


412 


22 


885 


29 


154 




9 


148 


16 


468 


23 


97 


30 


165 



TABLE VI. 

Showing the guage points used in finding the solid feet of 
timber of polygonal sides from 3 to 12 sides. 



3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


•9 


10 


11 


12 


18,24 


12.00 


9.11 


7.4G 


6.30 


5.45 


4.825 


4.325 


3.925 


3.600 



156 PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 

SECTION I. 
WATER WHEEL. 

1. Suppose you have a water wheel driving 100 
looms and preparation, 24 feet in diam., running 7 
feet per second ; how many revolutions per min. does 
it make ? 

Operation : 

Bring 22 on B to 7 on A, then under 24 the diam. 
of wheel, is found the circumference on B.= 75.43 ft. 

And if 1 second is taken for 7 feet to pass, how 
many seconds will be taken for 75.43 feet to pass ? 
and how many turns per min. ? 

Operation : 

Bring your 7 feet on B to 1 second on A, then over 
the cir. of wheel 75.43 on B. is found the number of 
seconds it takes for the wheel to make one turn ;= 
10.77 seconds nearly. Then to find the number of 
turns in one minute, bring 10.77+ on B to 1 rev. on 
A, and over 60 seconds on B is the rev. per min. on 
A=5.57 rev. 

2. A water wheel 30 feet in diam., revolves 5.5 
feet per second, how many rev. per min. does it make ? 

Ans. 3.5. 

3. Suppose a water wheel is 18 feet in diam., and 
turns 4.56 times per min. ; required its speed or ve- 
locity per sec. 

Ans. 4.29. 



I 

PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 157 

SECTION II. 
VELOCITY OF STREAM OF WATER. 

To find the fall when the velocity per second is known. 
1. Suppose two cords are strung across a stream 
18 feet from each other, and you have found by ex- 
periment, that a piece of cork moved from one to 
the other in just 1 second ; required the fall of the 
stream. 

Ans. 5.05 nearly. 
Operation : 

Set 64 on C to 64 on D, and over 18 on D is found 
the fall 5.05 on C. 

2. Suppose the same cords to be placed lower 
down the stream and you find the velocity per second 
is 21 feet. What is the fall ? 

Ans. 6.90. 

To find the velocity when the fall is known. 

1. Suppose you know the fall of a river to be 5 ft. ; 
what is its velocity per second ? Ans. 25 ft. 

Operation : 

Set 64 on C to 5 on D, and over 64 on B you have 
25 on A. 

2. Suppose the fall is4l feet; required its velocity 
per second. 

Ans. 20.25 nearly. 



158 PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 

SECTION III. 
SPEED OF DRUMS. 

To find the revolutions per min. of the driven pulley^ 
when the driver^ its number of revolutions^ and the 
driven pulley are given, 

1. Suppose the driver is a 24, turning 150 rev. per 
min., how many rev. per min. will the driven of 16 
inches make ? Ans. 225. 

Operation : 

Set your slider (inverted) 24 on C to 150 on A, 
and over 16 on C is 225 on A. 

2. Suppose the driver is 18 inches, making 150 rev. 
per min., how many rev. per min. will the driven of 
14 inches make ? Ans. 192.85 or 192}f . 

3. Suppose the driver is a 20, making 175 rev. per 
min., how many rev. will the driven of 17 make ? 

Ans. 206 nearly. 

4. Suppose the shaft driving the carding engine 
turns 110 rev. per min. with a 16 inch pulley driving 
the belt pulleys of 14 inches ; required the speed per 
min. of cylinder. Ans. 125.7. 

Operation : 

Invert your slider and set 16 on C to 110 on A, 
and over 14 on C is 125.7 nearly on A. 

When more requires less, or less requires more, the 
slider is inverted in its position. This and its other 
features, the reader will readily understand. 



PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 159 

To find the diameter of a driven wheel that shall make 
any required number of turns in the same time as 
_ the driver, when the driver and its revolutions per 
minute are given. 

1. Suppose the diameter of your driving pulley is 
18 inches, making 200 revolutions per minute, and 
you wish to drive the cylinder of the ring traveler 
600 turns per minute, what sized pulley is required 
on the end of the cylinder ? Ans. 6 inches. 

Operation. Bring the diameter of the driver 18 
on C to its rev. per min., 200 on A, and under the 
revolutions required, 600 is the diam. of pulley that 
will give the same on C. 

2. Suppose your driving pulley is 17 inches, making 
115 rev. per min. and you wish to start your looms at 
120 pecks per minute ; what sized belt pulleys do you 
require ? Ans. 16.3 nearly. 

3. Suppose a line of shafting revolving 150 turns 
per min with an 18 inch pulley, and you want to run 
your rims 135 turns per min.; what sized belt pulleys 
must you order ? Ans. 20 inches. 

4. If the driver of a fan is 20 inches making 300 
rev. per 'min. what is the diam. of small pulley on end 
of same to make 2000 rev. per min. Ans. 3 inches. 

To change or alter the driving pulley. 

1. Suppose you have a 9 inch pulley on throstle 
frame, which is required to be driven 150 rev. per 
min.; required the diam. of the driver that makes 100 
rev.? Ans. 13.5 inches. 



160 PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 

Operation. Bring 9 diam. of driver pulley on C, 
to the number of rev. required on A, 150, then under 
the rev. of the driver is found the diam. of pulley on 
C, 13.5 inches. 

2. The driver is 7 inches, and is required to run 
350 rev. per min. What is the diam. of the driver 
that makes 200 rev.? Ans. 12.25 inches. 



SECTION IV. 
SPEED OF GEARING. 

1. Suppose the driver is 100, making 45 revolutions 

and the driven 60 : required its rev. per min. 

Ans. 75 rev. 

Operation. Bring the driver on C to its rev. per 

min. on A, and over the driven on C, you have the 

rev. on A. 

2. Suppose the driver is 84, making 90 rev. per 
mill., and the driven is 36 ; required its rev. per min.? 

Ans. 210 rev. 

3. The circle of a water wheel contains 450 teeth 
and makes 5 rev. per min , the first driven contains 
40 do.; required the number of its rev. per min.? 

Ans. 56.25. 

When the driver, and its revolutions per minute are 
given, to find the driven that shall make a required 
number of revolutions in the same time. 

1. Suppose the driver has 80 teeth, making 96 rev. 
per min.; required the driven to make 128 in the same 
time ? Ans. 60. 



PEOBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 161 

Operation. Bring the driver 80 on C to its rev. 
per min., 96 on A, and under the required rev. 128 
on A, is the driven on C. 

2. If the driving pulley of the lapping-machine of 20 
inches turns 280 rev. per min., what must be the 
diam. of the beater pulley to make 1600 rev. in the 
same time ? Ans. 3.5 inches 

Operation. Set 20 on C to 280 on A, and over 
1600 on C is Sj or 3.5 on A. 

3. Suppose the rim to a mule jenny is 36 inches, 
making 125 rev. per min.; required the size or diam. 
of large twist pulley to make 400 rev. in same time? 

Ans. 11.25 or Hi inches. 



SECTION V. 



TWIST. 



1. Suppose the front roller of the fly frame is 1:^ 
inches in diam. making 200 rev. per min,, and the 
flyer makes 900 rev. per min. What twist per inch 
is given to the rove ? Ans. 1.14 per twist. 

Operation. Bring 22 on B to 7 on A, and over \\ 
or 1.25 on B is 3.93 nearly on A, the cir. of roller. 

And if 3.93 inches are made in 1 turn, how many 
inches are made in 200 turns ? Ans. 786 nearly. 

Operation. Bring 200 on B to 1 on A, and under 
3.93 on A is 786 on B. 



162 PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 

And if 786 inches are turned out per min. and 900 
turns of flyer are made per min., what is the twist per 
inch ? 

Operation. Bring 786 on B to 900 on A, and over 
1 on B you have 1.14 + on A. 

2. If the diam. of front roller is 1 inch, making 75 
rev. per min., how many inches are turned out ? 

Ans, 235.50. 
Operation. Bring 22 on B to 7 on A, and over 75 
on B is 235.70 on A. 

What is the twist given per inch, supposing the 
spindle to make 6000 turns per min.? 

Ans. 25.5 nearly. 

Operation, Bring 235.70 on B to 1 on A, and over 
6000 on B is 25.5 nearly on A. 

3. If 300 inches of yarn are turned out per min., 
and the spindle makes 6150 turns, what is the twist 
per inch ? Ans. 20.5 twist. 

4. If 400 inches are turned out and the spindle 
makes 6200 rev. per min., what is the twist per inch ? 

Ans. 15.5 twist. 

5. If the slubbing machine turns out 190 inches per 
min. and the flyer makes 228 turns per min., what 
twist per inch is given the roving ? 

Ans. 1.20=li twist. 

Operation. Bring 190 on B to 1 on A, and over 
228 onB is 1.20 on A. 



PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 163 

SECTION VI. 
DRAUGHTS. 

1. Required the draught of a machine whose dri- 
vers and driven wheels are as follows, viz.: 

First driver, 26 teeth. First driver, 116 teeth. 



Second do. 30 " 
Back roller, -3- inch. 



Second do. 60 " 
Front roller, 1 inch. 



Here it will be seen, are 6 numbers given to find 1 : 
now we cannot use them all at once upon our rule, 
and for this reason, we take the first driver, (26) and 
the first driven, (116) for our first movement, and 
bring the first driven 116 on B, to the first driver 26 
on A: then under 1 inch on A we find the draught 
given by these two wheels on B, which is 4.46 nearly : 
then for our second movement we bring the second 
driven wheel (60) on B, to 30, the second driver on 
A, and under the first draught, (4.46) on A, is the 2d 
draught on B, which you see is 8.92 nearly : then for 
our last movement, we bring the front roller of | of 
an inch on B to the back roller oi ^ of an inch on A, 
and under the second draught 8.92 on A, we find the 
whole draft, 10.20 nearly on B. Ans. 10 20 nearly. 

2. What is the draught of a carding engine whose 
drivers and driven wheels are as follows, viz.: the 
wheel on doflfer shaft 32 teeth, the wheel on upper end 
of side shaft 28 teeth, the wheel on lower end of same 
20 teeth, and the wheel on feeding roller of 140 teeth : 
the doffer 14 inches and the feeding rollers 2 inches 
indiam. Ans. 56. 



164 PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 



First driving wheel, 32 
Second do. 20 

Diam. of feed. roll. 2 



First driven wheel, 28 
Second do. 140 

Diam. of dof. 14 



Here, as in the last example, we have 6 terms given 
to find 1, and of course the same mode is pursued. 

Then, our first movement will be to take the first 
driven 28 on B, and bring it to 32, the first driver on 
A ; then under 1 on A we find the first draught 1.14 
nearly on B : then our next movement will be to 
bring the second driven wheel 140 on A to the second 
driver 20 on B, and over the first draught 1.14 on B, 
we find the second draught 8 on A : and our last 
movement is to bring the doffer of 14 inches on B to 
2 inches on A, and under the second draught 8 on A, 
we find the whole draught, 56 on B. 

The same mode of operation is pursued when mo- 
tion to the doffer and feeding rollers is conveyed by a 
range of wheels from the main drum axle. 

3. Required the draught of the mule jenny of the 
following wheels, viz.: 

Top-carrier wheel, 1 16 t'h. 
Back rol. " 56 " 

Front roller. f inch. 



Pinion gear on the 

coupling shaft, 20 teeth. 
Change wheel, 32 " 
Back roller, i- inch. 



Ans. 11.6 draught. 



4. Required the draught of the ring traveler whose 
draught wheels are as follows, viz.: 



PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 



165 



Pinion wheel, 20 teeth. Top-carrier wh'l, 72 teeth. 
Change do. 36 " Back roller do. 60 " 

Back roller, ^ inch. Front roller, f inch. 

Ans. 7.07 nearly. 

5. Required the draught of a machine whose 
draught wheels are as follows, viz.: 



Pinion wheel. 
Change do. 
Back roller, 



21 teeth. 
25 " 

5- inch. 



Top carrier wh'l, 72 teeth. 
Back roller do. 56 " 
Front roller, 1 inch. 

Ans. 8.77 draught. 

6. Suppose the pinion on front roller of extenser is 
a 21, working into the top-carrier of 72 teeth, and the 
change wheel a 28, working into the back roller wheel 
of 56 teeth : the back rol. J and the front do. f of an 
inch in diameter : required the draught. 

Ans. 7.7 draught. 



Pinion wheel, 


21 teeth. 


Top carrier. 


72 teeth 


Change do. 


28 " 


Back roll. wh. 


56 " 


Back roller, 


5- inch. 


Front roller, 


f inch 



Opej^ation. Bring 72 on B to 21 on A, and under 
1 on A is 3.4 nearly on B = the first draught : then 
bring 56 on B to 28 on A, and under 3.4 on A is 6.8 
on B = the second draught ; then, bring | on B to -J 
on A, and under 6.8 on A you have the whole draught 
8.8 on B. Ans. 8.8 draught. 



166 PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 

SECTION VII. ^ 

CHANGE OR NUMBER WHEELS. 

1. Suppose you are spinning 30's warp with a 
36 change wheel, and it is required to spin 40's from 
the same rove. What change wheel is necessary ? 

Ans. 27. 

Operation. Bring the slider (inverted, because 
here more requires less.) so that the change wheel 36 
on C, rests under 30 on A, and under the number re- 
quired 40's on A, is the change wheel 27 on C. 

2. Suppose a pair of mules are spinning No. 28 
weft, with a 30 change wheel, and it is required to 
change to 30's. What change wheel is necessary? 

Ans. 28. 

3. If a throstle-frame is spinning No. 24 with a 28 
change wheel, and you want to spin No. 26 from the 
same roving, what change wheel do you require ? 

Ans. 22. 

4. If a ring traveler is spinning No. 28 with a 30 
change wheel, and you replace it with a 24 change 
wheel, what No. of yarn will the latter turn out ? 

Ans. 35. 

Operation. Bring 28 on C to 30 on A, and over 
24 on C you have 35, the No. of yarn on A. 

5. Suppose a fly frame makes a 4 hank, roving from 
a 30 change wheel, what sized roving, and what dif- 
ference will a 24 change wheel make ? 

Ans. 5 hank roving, and 5 — 4=1 dif. 



PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 167 

6. Suppose you have a set of extensers making a 
4| hank rove from a 28 change wheel, and you desire 
to make a 6 hank rove from the same preparation, 
what change wheel do you need ? Ans. 21. 

7. Suppose you are making a 5 hank roving with a 
26 change wheel, and you wish to make a 4J hank 
roving, what change wheel do you require ? 

Ans. 29 nearly. 

8. Suppose you are spinning No. 40's weft with a 
30 change wheel, and you wish to spin No. 45's, 
what change wheel do you require ? 

Ans. 26.6, say 27. 

9. If a 32 change wheel will make from a 4 hank 
rove, No. 20, what No. of yarn will a 28 change 
wheel make ? Ans. 22.8, say 23. 

Operation. Bring 32 on C (slider inverted) to 20 
on A, and over 28 on C is found 22.8 nearly on A. 



SECTION VIII. 
THE LEVER. 

FIRST KIND OF LEVER. 



FA I I AF 



pj wv Ifw jp 

There are three kinds of levers ; first, that of the 
weight to be raised at one end, the power at the other 
end, and the prop, or fulcrum, somewhere between : 
second, that where the power is at one end, the fulcrum 
at the other, and the weight somewhere between ; and 



168 PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 

third, that where the weight is at one end, the fulcrum 
at the other, and the power somewhere between. 

1. Suppose the long arm of a lever is 9 feet, with a 
weight or power of 6 pounds resting on the same: 
required the weight or resistance this weight will bal- 
ance, the short arm being 1 foot ? Ans. 54 lbs. 

Operation. Bring the slider (inverted) so that the 
power (6 lbs.) on C, rests under 9 (the long arm) on 
A, and under 1 (the short arm) on A, you will find the 
resistance overcome 54 on C. 

2. Suppose you move your joint or pivot so that the 
short arm is 1^ ft. or 18 inches in length: required 
the resistance overcome ? Ans.^Q lbs. 

3. Suppose the long arm is 8 inches, with a power 
of 3j lbs. applied ; required the resistance this power 
will overcome, the short arm being 1 inch. 

Ans. 28 lbs. 

4. Suppose the long arm is 8 feet, with a power of 
75 lbs. and the short arm Ij or 1.5 feet : required the 
resistance ? Ans. 400 lbs. 

Operation. Bring the power 75 on C, to the long 
arm 8 on A, and under the short arm 1.5 on A, you 
perceive the resistance overcome 400 lbs. on C. 

5. Suppose the long arm is 6 feet, with a power of 
400 lbs. applied ; required the resistance this power 
will overcome, the short arm being 9 inches or .75 of 
one foot ? Ans. 3200 lbs. 

6. Suppose the long arm is 10 inches, the power 6 
lbs., the resistance 15 lbs.: required the length of the 
short arm ? Ans. 4 inches. 



PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 169 

Operation. Bring the power 6 lbs. on C, to the 
long arm 10 inches on A, and over the resistance 15 
lbs. on C, you perceive the short arm 4 inches on A. 

7. Suppose the long arm is 7 inches, the power 5 
lbs., and the resistance 8 lbs.: required the short arm ? 

Ans. 4.38 inches. 

8. Suppose the resistance is 25 lbs., the short arm 
3 inches : what is the long arm, the power being 
5 lbs.? J.71S. 15 inches. 

Operation. Bring the resistance, 25 lbs. on C, to 
the short arm 3 inches on A, and over the power 5 lbs. 
on C, you have the long arm 15 inches on A. 

9. Suppose the resistance is 40 lbs., the short arm 
4.5 inches : what is the long arm, the power being 
9.5 lbs.? Ans. 19 in. nearly. 

10. Suppose the resistance to be 150 lbs., the short 
arm 1.5 inches, and the long arm 15 inches : required 
the power? Ans. 15 lbs. 

Operation. Bring the resistance 150 on C, to the 
short arm 1.5 on A, and under the long arm 15 on A, 
is 15 on C. 

11. If the resistance is 1000 lbs., the short arm 2 
feet, and the long arm 16 feet, what is the power? 

Ans. 125 lbs. 



12 



170 PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 



SECOND KIND OF LEVER. 



I AF FA I 

W© ®W 

1. Suppose a lever is 12 inches, with a power of 5 
lbs., what is the resistance, the short arm being 2.5 
inches ? Ans. 24 lbs. 

Operation. Bring the power 5 lbs. on C, to length 
of lever 12 inches on A, and under the short arm 2.5 
inches on A, you have the resistance 24 lbs. on C. 

2. Suppose the short arm is 3 inches, the resistance 
12 lbs. and the power 4.5 lbs.: required the length of 
your lever ? Ans. 8 inches. 

Operation. Bring the resistance 12 lbs. on C, to 
the short arm 3 inches on A, and over the power 4.5 
lbs. on C, is the length of the lever 8 inches on A. 

3. Suppose the drawing-frame rollers require to be 
weighted 18 lbs., and you want to use a lever 6 inches 
long, with the fulcrum f or .75 of an inch from the 
end : required the weight or power ? 

Ans. 2.25 lbs. 

Operation. Bring your weight 18 lbs. on C, to the 
short arm .75 of an inch on A, and under the length 
of lever 6 inches, on A, you have the power required 
2.25 lbs. on C. 

4. Suppose you wish to weight the rollers of a mule 



PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 171 

16 lbs. with a lever 5 inches long : required the power 
to be applied, calling the short arm J or .5 of an inch. 

Ans. 1.6 lbs. 

5. If the steam engine valve requires a weight of 
35 lbs on a 12 inch lever, what weight must you sus- 
pend on the end of same to produce it, the fulcrum or 
short arm being 3 inches from the other end ? 

Ans. 8.75 lbs. 

6. If the lever of an engine is 10 inches, with a 
power suspended of 5j or 5.5 ibs., the resistance 35 
lbs., what is the length or distance of the fulcrum from 
the shorter end ? 

Ans. 1.57 feet, or ly^j^- nearly. 

Operation. Bring the power suspended 5.5 on C, 
to length of lever 10 on A, and over the resistance 
35 onC, is the length of short arm 1.6 nearly on A. 

7. Suppose you have a lever 12 feet long and apply 
a power equal to 250 lbs. and you wish to raise a 
weight of 6000 lbs., what distance from the end of 
lever must you place your fulcrum ? 

Ans. 6 in. or .5 foot. 



172 PROBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 



THIRD KIND OF LEVER. 



V F F V 



I 

1. Suppose the power to be'300 lbs., the short arm 
f of a foot or 9 inches, and the length of lever 12 feet ; 
required their resistance ? Ans. 18.75 lbs. 

Operation. Bring the power 300 lbs. on C, to the 
short arm, .75 of a foot on A, and under the length of 
lever 12 feet on A, is the resistance 18f lbs. on C. 

2. Suppose the power to be 450 lbs., the resistance 
100, and the length of lever 11 feet : required the short 
arm ? Ans. 2.44 feet. 

3. If the length of a lever is 14 feet, the resistance 
110 lbs., what distance from the joint or end must you 
place 500 lbs. to balance or sustain the resistance? 

Ans. 3.08 feet. 



SECTION IX. 



THE PULLEY. 



1. Required the weight balanced by a power of 30 
lbs. made fast to a rope passing over two movable 
pulleys ? Ans. 120 lbs. 

Operation. Bring 4 (double the number of pul- 
leys) on B, to 1 on A, and under the power (30 lbs.) 
on A, is the weight 120 on B. 



PftOBLEMS WORKED BY THE SLIDING RULE. 173 

2. Required the weight balanced by a power of 150 
lbs. made fast to a rope passing over 8 movable 
pulleys ? Ans. 2400 lbs. 

3. Required the power to balance a weight of 100 
lbs. made fast to a rope passing over 4 movable 
pulleys ? Ans. 12.5 lbs. 

4. Suppose a drum upon a certain shaft 24 inches 
diam. to make 150 rev. per minute, which is driven 
by a first drum : required the diam. of the pulley on 
ring frame cylinder, to make 480 turns in a minute ? 

Ans. 7^ inches. 
Operation. Bring 24 on A, to 150 on C, and under 
480 on A, you have 7^ or 7.5 on C. 

5. Suppose a drum upon a first mover to be 20 
inches in diam., making 60 revolutions per minute, 
required the diameter of last drum to make 300 revo- 
lutions ? Ans. 4 inches. 

6. Suppose 1000 lbs. to be hung to a pair of blocks 
of 10 pulleys, (one-half being loose,) what weight must 
be hung to the last pulley in order to balance them? 

Ans. 10 lbs. 



STATISTICS OF MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS. 



LOWELL. 

This is the largest manufacturing place in the coun- 
try. It is well laid out, and is fast increasing in popu- 
lation, manufactures and wealth. Here are turned 
out some 80,000,000 yards of goods yearly, consuming 
25,000,000 pounds ^of cotton, and over 1,000,000 
pounds of wool, &c. &:c. 

In 1845, there were eleven corporations, with an 
aggregate capital of nearly 11,000,000 dollars; some 
thirty-three mills, exclusive of print works, &c., em- 
ploying nearly 9000 hands. Since then it has in- 
creased, and promises to expand and reward, in a 
greater degree, its founders and their representa- 
tives. 

The Lowell Courier, a spirited paper, in speaking of 
its business prospects, says, " There are few cities in 
the union which have grown up and assumed an im- 
portance in the business world, as suddenly as our 
own. Twenty-five years ago the spot on which this 
beautiful city stands, was a barren waste. Now we 
number about 27,000 inhabitants. Though our 
growth has been sudden, it has been healthy; it has 
been the result of Massachusetts capital, Massachu- 



STATISTICS OF MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS. 175 

setts enterprise, and Massachusetts foresight, discon- 
nected entirely with speculation, or hazardous or 
doubtful experiment. The founders of this city were 
men of character and of solid means ; and it is a grat- 
ifying fact that from the first commencement of our 
manufactures here, until the present hour, not one of 
the thousands of operatives who have labored for the 
corporations, has lost of his or her fair earnings, the 
value of a sixpence. Lowell has become the second 
city of New England, and we are gratified to learn 
that the star of her destiny is yet rising, and is not 
yet near its culminating point." 

This city may well be called the Manchester of 
America, both from its amount of capital and number 
of manufactories, and from its being the central point 
in New England of this important branch of our in- 
dustry. Here may be seen what in vain we find in 
the workshops of Birmingham, or in the streets of 
Paisely or Glasgow, a host of men and a greater num- 
ber of the 'better half,' who are respected as human 
beings, and whose moral power is felt and acknowl- 
edged, and who have bread enough and to spare. 
Here is displayed a kindness of heart, a generosity of 
feeling, and a devotedness of zeal between men and 
men, which have elevated the ' city of spindles' high 
on the scale of moral excellence, caused her to shine 
as a star of the first magnitude, and signalized her 
growing loveliness with the most happy results. Here 
too, while industry and devotedness are her offerings 
at the loom, may be found the workings of more than 
ordinary genius in the mind of many a female. In 



176 STATISTICS OF 

beholding her commanding eminence, and listening 
to the hum of the spindle, the clash of the loom, and 
the rich music of her dashing water-falls and chiming 
bells ; in gazing upon her prosperity, her beauty, and 
her increasing strength, who of us does not feel 
proud that it is our own, and who of us but wishes 
success — success to the Manchester of America? 



LAWRENCE CITY. 

This promises, at no distant period, to become one 
of the largest manufacturing districts in our country. 
Mills have sprung up like magic, and capitalists are 
developing its resources. It is beautifully located, 
and like all Massachusetts enterprise, goes ahead with 
energy and rapidity. 



Another district to which the above remarks justly 
apply, is found at Hadley Falls. There is not a doubt 
that it will outstrip Lowell in this branch of our indus- 
try. Success attend it. 



NEWBURYPORT, MASS. 

This town, situated in the extreme east of the state, 
contains quite a number of mills, which turn out as 
handsome goods as any in this or any other country. 
This is a healthy, growing place, and is deservingly 
celebrated for the enterprise of its inhabitants. 



MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS. 177 

CABOTSVILLE. 

This is quite an extensive manufacturing district, 
and is beautifully laid out. Speaking of its rapid 
growth, Mr. White, in his Memoir of Slater, says : 
" It has grown up with astonishing rapidity, and bids 
fair to become, at no very distant day, a second 
Lowell." 

" The water power at this place is immense, and as 
yet, scarcely begun to be occupied. There is a neat- 
ness, too, and good taste, in the location of the streets, 
and the arrangement of the buildings, which is not 
common in manufacturing villages. The cotton fac- 
tories are extensive, and in appearance resembling 
those at Lowell." 

There are other villages but a little distance from 
this, marked with a peculiar degree of taste and sim- 
phcity. 



FALL RIVER. 

This town, in July, 1843, was visited by one of the 
most destructive fires that ever occurred in New 
England. Since then, it has been re-built with 
greater splendor and a more refined taste, and now is 
one of the most prosperous and spirited manufactur- 
ing districts. Most of the mills are situated on a de- 
scending point, one below the other, and form quite 
an imposing appearance. The water, as it leaves the 
upper mill passes directly to the others. 

A variety of manufactures are here turned out, con- 



178 STATISTICS OP 

sisting of cotton, woolen and printing goods, extensive 
nail and other iron works, together with numerous 
mechanical implements, &c. It is a growing place, 
and is distinguished alike for the beauty of its loca- 
tion, and the enterprise of its inhabitants. 

Other manufacturing districts in this, as in other 
parts of our country, are found scattered along beside 
most every stream. These our limits forbid us to 
mention. A few of the most important in a number 
of the states will be given below. 



PATTERSON, (NEW JERSEY.) 

This is a flourishing district, and next to Lowell, is 
one of the most extensive in our country. Beside 
numerous cotton, and other manufactories, here are 
found some of the greatest machine shops and iron 
works of America. And it is not saying more than 
can be substantiated, that machines are here turned 
out, that will vie with the most elegantly finished of 
those of Manchester. 

The water power here is unfailing, being the vast 
sheet of the Passaic ; and it has been found that be- 
tween the distance of four miles, viz., between Great 
and Little Falls, there is a fall of some 145 feet, capa- 
ble of driving upwards of 300 undershot water-wheels. 
This place, it would seem, is destined as a star of pe- 
culiar beauty in the galaxy of American manufac- 
tures. 



MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS. 179 

SACO, (MAINE.) 

At this place are a number of elegant factories for 
making striped and mixed jeans, drillings, tickings, 
&c., managed with distinguished ability. The facil- 
ities for manufacturing at this place are superseded 
by no other of this country. The Saco river, in the 
driest seasons, is fed by the melting snow from the 
summits of the White Mountains, proving a never- 
failing reservoir, and sufficiently capable of operating 
from twelve to fifteen of the largest factories. The 
transportation to the great Atlantic city, too, is quite 
limited in its expense, when compared with a great 
proportion of our establishments, being but from ninety 
cents to one dollar per ton. Many other advantages 
combine to render this location attractive to the cap- 
italist and manufacturer. 

The Kennebec river, (across which is completed a 
dam,) is thought by competent judges to be capable 
of driving more than one hundred factories. 



GREAT FALLS, (NEW HAMPSHIRE.) 

In entering this beautiful village, one is forcibly 
struck with the beauty and uniformity of its appear- 
ance, and the precision with which it is laid out. 
Quite a number of mills extend along in a straight 
line but a few rods from each other, as also do the 
neat dwelhngs of the operatives, surrounded by a 
court planted with beautiful trees. Much taste is 
displayed in the management of this lovely village. 
From twelve to fifteen hundred looms, or upwards, 
are here operated. 



180 STATISTICS OF 

DOVER, (N. H.) 

Here are found quite a number of respectable fac- 
tories, so situated as to form a block or square. Many 
excellent printing goods are made and stamped ready 
for market. The Dover Prints bear the most rigid 
scrutiny and competition. Like many of the New 
England villages, it is one of rare beauty and retire- 
ment. 

At Manchester, Nashua, Portsmouth, Little Falls, 
etc., there are in operation many deservingl}^ celebra- 
ted mills, and there are sites for upwards of seventy- 
five more of the largest class. 



MATTEAWAN, (N. Y.) 

Very superior machines, and other manufactures, 
are here turned out, reflecting much credit upon the 
owners. 

The Matteawan Machine Company furnish as good 
machines in every respect, as those made in Glasgow 
or at any other place in Britain. 

Many factories are found scattered over the " Em- 
pire State," the larger of which are on the Hudson 
and its branches. 



SMITHFIELD, (R. L) 

This is one of the largest manufacturing towns in 
the state, and is rendered peculiarly attractive from 
the number and neatness of its villages. Probably 
there is not another district in the Eastern States? 



MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS. 181 

where can be found connected a greater amount and 
variety of business than along the valley of the Black- 
stone. Commencing at Providence, and following 
this river for more than thirty miles, the traveler 
barely passes one village before another is presented 
to his view full of life and motion. 

Among the numerous establishments which may be 
found in operation along this valley, are those of Paw- 
tucket, a flourishing town, and the birth place of 
American manufactures, the Central and Valley Falls, 
the Lonsdale and Blackstone Companies, the Slaters- 
ville and Varnum's, the Woonsocket Falls Company, 
and other large mechanical works of unsurpassed ex- 
tent and value. 

Besides the above concerns, there are found others 
of as great importance in various parts of this state, 
such as are in Coventry, Warwick, Johnston, Scitu- 
ate, North Providence, Warren, Newport, Bristol? 
&c. &c. 



NORWICH, (CONN.) 

In this town are found quite a number of extensive 
manufactories, the principal of which are at Green- 
ville and " The Falls." At the former village are the 
Thames, the Shetucket, the Greenville Companies, 
beside carpet, paper, dyeing factories, machine shops 
foundries, &c. This place is noted for its rapid 
growth, and the neatness of its appearance. 

At "The Falls," on the Yantic, are a number of 
elegant mills and other manufactories, conducted with 
much foresight. 



182 STATISTICS OF 

Other mills are scattered along most every stream 
in this state. The Quinebaug and other smaller 
streams in the eastern part, operate numerous estab- 
lishments, such as are situated in Willimantic, Pom- 
fret, Killingly, Thompson, Plainfield, Griswold, and 
other towns. 



CINCINNATI, (OHIO.) 

This great emporium of the West, destined to be- 
come the "shining star" of America, already contains 
a number of cotton and other manufactories, which 
are deservingly celebrated. 

Other factories are being put into operation in many 
of the towns near the Ohio, which are exceeded by 
none in our country. 



The cotton manufacture is carried on to a consid- 
erable extent in the Middle and Southern States. 
And there can be no doubt, that in less than twenty- 
five years, this portion of our country will have be- 
come the greatest cotton manufacturing district in 
the world ! This is a strong assertion ; but it is for- 
tified by the most reasonable circumstances. The 
cheapness of labor, the vast forests of the Carolinas, 
the immense water power, the numberless and as ex- 
tensive iron, coal, and other mines, the over-produ- 
cing and still increasing amount of raw material, the 
limited transportation and growing facilities for a 
ready market, (all guided by Yankee enterprise,) 
combine to make the South peculiarly adapted as the 
great cotton manufacturing, as well as cotton produ- 
cing, granary of the world. 



MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS. 183 

True, as yet, the Northern and European manufac- 
turers are formidable competitors, and will for a season 
continue so to be ; but who is prepared to discredit 
the advancement we have made ? Who, with a re- 
flecting mind, in this wonder-growing country, is pre- 
pared to prove the falsity of our more than probable 
statement ? 

With candid reflection as our guide, who of us dare 
predict the unfolding of nature and art within a quar- 
ter of a century in the destinies of the Western world ? 
Seeming impossibilities, and fortresses as impregnable 
as Gibraltar, in the estimation of our forefathers, have 
been demolished and scattered to the winds by their 
children ! The wild woods of the " far west," once 
the abode of the savage man and beast, deemed by 
our ancestors as a dreary and cheerless waste, have 
been explored by their posterity, and the sun in his 
course sheds not more genial rays upon, or beholds a 
more fruitful land than ours ! 

The spirit of improvement, with the mantles of 
Watt and Franklin and Morse as its talisman, has 
brought our vast republic into a neighborhood, and 
enabled us to hold sweet converse with beings from 
one extremity to the other. 

The dashing rivulet, the waving forest, and the 
wonder-working fire of the lightning, with which our 
philosopher delighted to play, are made our ministers in 
conveying our directions, our wills and our thoughts ! 
And our huge and untiring monster of the land, the 
iron horse, fed by naught but vapor and blaze, obedi- 
ent both to man and child, delighting to chase the 
lark in its flight, or to pull with Hercules the solid 



184 STATISTICS OF MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS. 

base, ready to drain the deepest river, to march tri- 
umphantly over mountain-high billows, to finish the 
tiny needle, in short, almost sufficient to accomplish 
the will of man, is only the forerunner of a mightier 
agent, (as yet in its infancy,) destined to brave all, to 
overcome all. 

Twenty-five years ! — and what scenes will be pre- 
sented to the American ! He will behold the unex- 
plored region bounded by the Pacific — a world by 
itself — crowded by human beings, united in our con- 
federacy, and linked to the Rock of Plymouth by an 
iron chain. He will behold 40,000,000 of human 
beings, the most devoted, the most beloved, the most 
respected of any on the face of the earth. He will 
find along the valleys of the western rivers, the great- 
est agricultural country on the globe. In the South 
and East, he will behold the most extensive manufac- 
turing district in the world. He will find every city 
of " the Union" connected with a railway. He will 
find that news can be transmitted from Astoria to 
Eastport, from thence to New Orleans and back again 
to its origin, in one day. He can transact his busi- 
ness with any city while seated in his own counting- 
room. He will employ wings, wind, vapor and other 
agencies, as yet almost unknown, to transport his 
person, his interests, from one end of the republic to 
the other. He will behold the greatest commercial, 
the wealthiest, the most enterprising, the most success- 
ful, and withal, the happiest people in the whole world. 
In short, we repeat, who of us dare predict what we 
may not be permitted, in our admiring wonder, to 
gaze upon ? 



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